THE JAPANESE NATION-A TYPICAL PRODUCT OF

ENVIRONMENT.1

By GARDINER G. HUBBARD.

Of all countries of the earth, none have made such wonderful and rapid progress in form of government and in the development of industries and commerce, and such great changes in its conditions of environment as Japan. This country, which twenty-five years ago was almost unknown, has come forward to take its place not only as the foremost of oriental powers, but in the sisterhood of nations. While we marvel at this wonderful change, a glance at her geographic position, her internal and industrial resources, a brief study of her past history, and of the character, manners, and customs of her people will help us to understand her present, and perhaps to foretell something of her future. Both the old and the recent development show Japan to be a typical product of environment.

In the geographic position of Japan and Great Britain there is a striking resemblance; both consist of a group of islands with extensive seacoasts, indented with numerous excellent harbors, and bathed by equatorial currents; their insular position protecting them from invasion by land, and offering every opportunity for commercial intercourse. Almost within sight of each lies a continent densely populated, affording a market for productions and manufactures; both are rich in mines of coal and iron ore. The mines of Great Britain built up and then stimulated her manufactures, and these developed commerce and banking facilities, and made England the first manufacturing, commercial, and financial power of the world. The mines of Japan are developing her manufactures and her commerce, and she must become the first commercial power of the Orient.

The Empire of Japan is composed of four large and three thousand small islands, forming an arc of a large circle, extending from the northeast, within a few miles of Kamchatka, southwest about 2,000 miles, and with Formosa, nearly 3,000 miles, from an arctic climate to one of perpetual spring and everlasting summer.

Saturday lecture in Assembly Hall of the United States National Museum, May 9, 1896.

A long range of high mountains follows the general trend of the islands from northeast to southwest, culminating in the beautiful peak of Fujiama, 12,365 feet high. Volcanoes and earthquakes give to Japan its name of "Earthquake country." From the mountains clear and rapid streams make rich the valleys, while inland seas, dotted with small islands, beautiful bays, and numerous harbors, contribute to make Japan a nation of sailors, and to cover the waters with vessels and boats; the whole making a picture of surpassing beauty. The landscape is a continuous succession of lofty mountains and valleys, looking out on these inland seas, while the labor of centuries has brought the valleys and mountain slopes to a high state of cultivation.

Leaving the geography of Japan, let us glance a moment at its history and see how that has been affected by its geographical conditions and influenced by its environments.

The oldest existing race is the Ainos, who now live in the northeastern islands of the Empire, the coldest and least desirable portion. They originally occupied the greater portion of Japan, but were dispossessed of their lands; driven far north or enslaved, and so gradually intermingled with the subsequent immigrants, who were stronger races. These immigrants came from the islands of the Pacific, from China, Korea, and Mongolia. Into the southern portion of Japan came inhabitants of the Malay and Polynesian type; into the center came the Koreans and Chinese, while into the north came men of the Mongolian type.

The habitable portions of Japan are on or near the shore; this gives easy communication by water to all parts of Japan, and has led to the mingling of its races and the formation of the Japanese nation.

OLD JAPAN.

In former times the Mikado, as the earthly representative of the Deity, ruled with absolute power. But by degrees the Mikado and his court becoming weak and effeminate, the real power passed from the court and civil rulers to the army. The military officers gradually withdrew from court to fortified camps, and subsequently built castles, where they lived surrounded by their military retainers and dependents. They embodied in their customs and mode of life most of the features of the feudal system of Europe. Thus, in two widely separated portions of the world, each without knowledge of the other, similar environments produced like systems, and at about the same era. To the introduction of this system, unknown in any other part of Asia, Japan is greatly indebted for its subsequent development, for each castle became a center of civilization and of an independent growth. The military officers of the Mikado became Daimios, or territorial lords and barons, living in fortified castles scattered over the country. They usurped all the offices, compelled the people to become subject to them, and through the labor of these serfs acquired large hereditary revenues.

Subordinate to the Daimios were the Samauri, the military class employed by and dependent on the Daimios, living on their estates, faithful and loyal retainers. Under the Samauri were the working classes, serfs, little better than slaves.

Subsequently one of the Daimios usurped the civil power, nominally acting as the minister of the Mikado, calling himself the Shogun. Thus the Shogun acquired the temporal power and control of the army, leaving the Mikado, who had always been withdrawn from public sight, only the priestly office and the honor attached.

We have been in the habit of regarding Japan as a hermit nation, without any relation with the outside world. Fortunately, she has not been allowed to live permanently isolated from the rest of the world. Her conditions of environment have been largely influenced by three great waves of civilization which have swept over her. The first, from Asia, in the sixth century, brought Chinese literature and Buddhism. The second, in the sixteenth century, from Europe, brought the merchants of Portugal and Holland and the Jesuits from Spain. The last, in the nineteenth century, brought the civilization of America and Europe, with the Christian religion.

The effect of China on the art, religion, and literature of Japan we shall consider later.

The merchants of Europe had commercial relations with Japan for about seventy-five years, between 1550 and 1625. With the traders came the Jesuits, Xavier and his associates, who made many proselytes, probably six or seven hundred thousand. This contact with European civilization wrought important changes in Japan, though not perceptible to us.

During the last part of the sixteenth century persecution began, the Japanese asserting, and some believing, that the priests were endeav oring to overthrow the Government and to convert Japan into a papal province, and that Christianity tended to lessen reverence toward parents and ancestors, a prominent feature of the Japanese religion. This persecution continued until the middle of the seventeenth century, when the Christians had all either renounced their faith or had been put to death. We are told that the annals of the primitive church furnish no instances of greater heroism or constancy than those of the Christians of Japan.

This attempt to establish commercial relations with Europe and introduce Christianity resulted in the sealing of Japan against all communication with the outside world for two hundred years, in the expulsion of all foreigners, and in the prohibition of all intercourse between the natives and foreigners, save with the Dutch, at one point. It was made a capital offense to teach or preach the Christian faith, and Japanese were forbidden to leave Japan under pain of death and confiscation of their property.

Notwithstanding these laws and the feeling of the people, some light

from abroad continued to shine upon Japan. Shipwrecked crews were cast upon the shores; foreign ships were seen sailing past, and occasionally anchored in some port for water or repairs or trade. By slow degrees a few Japanese became desirous to see more of these foreigners, for although outside barbarians, they yet knew many things of which the Japanese were ignorant. These inquirers and seekers after knowledge belonged to the class of men we call radicals.

About the middle of this century, the Mikado, a man of greater ability than his predecessors, determined to recover the power formerly wrested from his ancestors, and on conference with some of the Daimios found they were dissatisfied with the Government of the Shogun and desired to restore the power to the Mikado, "for all men hated the Shogun while all men loved the Mikado." The radicals naturally joined the Mikado, thinking any change would give greater freedom and lead to intercourse with that other world of which they knew so little; others of a conservative temperament as naturally desired the reestablishment of the old system. Many were therefore united in opposition to the Shogun.

It was about this time, viz, 1853, that Matthew G. Perry, commander of a naval expedition of the United States, visited Japan and demanded the opening of certain ports to American commerce. After making known his mission he left, saying that he should return and then remain until the ports of Japan were opened. The next year he returned and renewed his demands with great tact and moderation. The Shogun, finding himself without support, was compelled to yield and sign the treaty. England and other European powers immediately followed the example of America, and compelled Japan to make treaties with them. The ports were opened in 1859 and 1860, but for several years there was very little trade; the lives, even, of foreigners were unsafe away from their flag. It was only by slow degrees that Western civilization was brought to Japan and the barriers to intercourse and progress removed. The Mikado slowly recovered his old powers, while the Shogun lost all his authority.

Then old Japan passed away; the physical environments remained, all others were changed. An experiment novel in history began. The closed country was opened; instead of the exclusion of foreigners, they were invited from all parts of the civilized world. Natives under the old régime had been forbidden to leave Japan under pain of death. Now, a commission of the highest nobles, with four cabinet ministers, was sent to the United States, Germany, England, and France, to study their systems of government, education, finance, justice, and relig ion, and the organization of their armies and navies. Japanese youths were sent abroad for education, and men of high reputation were brought from other countries as professors and teachers. The Japanese, though respecting themselves and their own civilization, realized that in many respects it differed from that of Western nations, and was capable of develo

Their financial and educational systems were modeled on those of the United States, Germany, and England; their judicial system was borrowed from the codes of half the nations of Europe; their navy upon the English; their army upon the German system.

In 1871, the Mikado became convinced that the overthrow of the feudal system was necessary, because opposed to modern life. He therefore issued an edict requiring the Daimios to surrender their territorial rights and revenues, to disband their retainers and dependents, and to retire to private life. They generally obeyed, removing from their castles to the large cities. For the privileges they surrendered they received an annuity equal to one-tenth of their old revenues, with relief from the maintenance of their dependents. An annuity was given to the Samauri, and freedom to the serfs.

Russia, Japan, and the United States each emancipated their slaves or serfs between 1861 and 1871. Russia emancipated about 49,000,000 serfs and sold to them the lands they had cultivated for their masters, for a fixed price, payable in annual installments, running through fifty years. Japan emancipated about 20,000,000 serfs and gave to them the land they had cultivated, subject only to the usual tax on real estate. The United States emancipated about 3,000,000 slaves without any provision for their benefit, save the enactment of laws-sometimes enforced. The former serfs of Japan are now its peasants and farmers.

In old Japan education was not common, though a considerable portion of the people could read and write. In 1872, the following edict was passed: "It is intended that education shall be diffused, and there shall not be a village with an ignorant family, nor a family with an ignorant member." Education is now compulsory. The chairs in many of the universities were at first filled by Americans and Englishmen; but as soon as the Japanese realized that they had secured from foreigners all that they could give, and that they could help themselves, without being dependent on foreigners, they dismissed them—not all at once, but gradually. This was carried so far that when the Japan-China war began there was not a single foreign officer in either army or navy. Quite recently the Japanese converts have dismissed the professors in their theological seminary, asserting that the missionaries are unduly conservative, and not abreast of the best scholarship of America and Germany; while the Japanese scholars possess advantages in the study of theology, from their freedom from prejudices growing out of Christian tradition.

In 1876, Sunday was adopted as an official holiday, and all acts against Christians were repealed.

In 1877, an edict was issued forbidding the Samauri to wear the long and short swords which they had carried for generations-the first for combat, the second for "hara-kari." In no country has the sword been an object of such honor as in Japan, for it was a divine symbol, a knightly weapon, and a certificate of noble birth. It was the life