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Nassau, and died Feb. 24, 1468. Little is known of his life and works, or of the early progress of the art of printing, and the introduction of movable types. Valuable statements and suggestions on this subject are to be found in Fischer's Versuch zur erklärung alter typographischen Merkwürdigkeiten (Hamburg, 1740); Oberlin's Beiträge zur Geschichte Gutenberg (Strasburg, 1801); and in the works of Denis, Lichtenberger, Panzer, and many other writers.

GUTTURAL (from the Latin guttur, the throat) signifies, in grammar, a sound produced chiefly by the back parts of the cavity of the mouth. The palatals g and k are nearly related to them. The Greek X, the German ch after a, and ch after i, and the Dutch g, are gutturals. The Arabian language is full of gutturals, and many of them are unknown in most other languages. (See the article H, for the relation between g and the guttural sound of the German ch or the Greek x.) The modern Greek gives to x a very strong guttural sound, like that of the German ch after e and after a. The Irish ris a true guttural. The French nasal sound, as in long, is a true guttural; the English sound in long not so much, as it is less nasal. The Spanish has been called, by some, a nasalguttural. The roughness of the dialect of Switzerland is owing to its strong and numerous gutturals; for it not only pronounces all the gutturals of the German language very forcibly, but also gives to g, in many cases, the harsh guttural sound of ch after a.

GUY; a rope used to keep steady any weighty body from bearing or falling against the ship's side while it is hoisting or lowering, particularly when the ship is shaken by a tempestuous sea.-Guy is also the name of a tackle, used to confine a boom forward when a vessel is going large, and to prevent the sail from shifting by any accidental change of the wind or course, which would endanger the springing of the boom, or perhaps the upsetting of the vessel.-Guy is likewise a large slack rope, extending from the head of the main-mast to the head of the fore-mast, and having two or three large blocks fastened to it. It is used to sustain a tackle to load or unload a ship with, and is accordingly removed as soon as that operation is finished.

GUY, Thomas, the founder of Guy's hospital, was the son of a lighterman in Southwark, and born in 1644. He was brought up a bookseller. He dealt largely in the importation of Bibles from Holland,

and afterwards contracted with Oxford for those printed at that university; but his principal gains arose from the disreputable purchase of seamen's prize tickets, in queen Anne's war, and from his dealings in South sea stock, in 1720. By these speculations and practices, aided by the most penurious habits, he amassed a fortune of nearly half a million sterling, of which he spent about £200,000 in the building and endowing his hospital in Southwark. He also erected almshouses at Tamworth, and benefited Christ's hospital and various other charities, leaving £80,000 to be divided among those who could prove any degree of relationship to him. He died in December, 1724, in his 81st year, after having dedicated more to charitable purposes than any private man in English record.

GUY DE CHAULIAC (Guido de Cauliaco), a native of Chauliac, on the frontier of Auvergne, France, lived in the middle of the 14th century, and was the physician of three popes. He is to be considered as the reformer of surgery in his time. His Chirurgia magna contains most of the opinions of his predecessors. It was long considered as a classical text book; was finished at Avignon in 1363; and was printed at Bergamo (1498, folio). older edition is mentioned (Venice, 1470, folio). It has been often reprinted, commented on, and translated into modern languages.

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GUY FAWKES. (See Gunpowder Plot.) GUY'S HOSPITAL, in the borough of London. (See Guy.) The hospital was established for 400 sick persons, besides 20 incurable lunatics. It contains 13 wards, and upwards of 400 beds. There are three physicians, three surgeons, and an apothecary. The average number of patients admitted annually is about 2250, besides whom there are 20,000 out-patients. This hospital has a collection of anatomical preparations, and a theatre for the delivery of chemical, medical and anatomical lectures. On one evening in the week, medical subjects are debated.

GUYON, Madame. (See Quietism.)

GUYS, Pierre Augustin; born at Marseilles, 1721; a merchant in Constantinople, and afterwards in Smyrna; known for his travels and his accounts of them. He subsequently became a member of the institute, and of the academy of Arcadians in Rome. His first work appeared in 1744, and contained an account of his journey from Constantinople to Sophia, the capital of Bulgaria, in a series of letters. In 1748, he published, in the form of let

ters, an account of his journey from Marseilles to Smyrna, and thence to Constantinople. He was mostly indebted, for his literary fame, to his Voyage littéraire de la Grèce, a work in which he compares and contrasts, with much acuteness and truth, the condition of ancient and modern Greece, and their political and civil constitution. Guys also made himself known as a poet, by his Seasons, on the occasion of his journey to Naples, which was received with much applause. On the publication of his Voyage de la Grèce, Voltaire addressed some very flattering verses to him, and the Greeks conferred on him the privileges of an Athenian citizen. Guys died at Zante, in 1799, at the age of 79, as he was collecting materials for the third edition of his travels in Greece. His son, Pierre Alphonse, was appointed secretary of the French embassy to Constantinople, to Vienna, and to Lisbon; afterwards consul in Sardinia; then at Tripoli in Africa; and, finally, at Tripoli in Syria, where he died in 1812. He published letters on the Turks, in which he treats of the rise and decay of their power. He was also the author of the comedy La Maison de Molière, in four acts, altered from Goldoni.

GWINNETT, Button, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, was born in England, about the year 1732, and, in 1770, emigrated to Charleston, S. C., where he continued the business of a merchant, in which he had been previously engaged. At the end of two years, however, he abandoned commerce; and, purchasing a plantation with a number of negroes, on St. Catharine's island, in Georgia, devoted his attention to agriculture. Soon after the revolutionary struggle commenced, he took an active part in the affairs of Georgia; and, Feb. 2, 1776, the general assembly of the province elected him a representative to the general congress held at Philadelphia, where he appeared May 20. He was reelected October 9, and, in February, 1777, was appointed a member of a convention for the purpose of framing a constitution for the state; and the foundation of that afterwards adopted, is said to have been furnished by him. He was soon chosen president of the provincial council; but his conduct in this station was obnoxious to censure, as he employed his powers for the purpose of thwarting the operations of general McIntosh, against whom he had a personal enmity, in consequence of the latter having succeeded in obtaining the post of brigadier-general of a continental brigade, to be levied in Georgia, for

which Gwinnett himself had been a candidate. In May, 1777, Gwinnett was a candidate for the chair of governor of the state, but failed; and, on the 27th of the same month, a duel took place between him and McIntosh, on account of some insulting remarks of the latter. Both parties were wounded; but the injury received by Gwinnett terminated his life in the 45th year of his age.

GWYNN, Eleanor, better known by the name of Nell, the celebrated mistress of king Charles II, was at first an orange girl of the meanest description, in the play-house. In the first part of her life, she gained her bread by singing from tavern to tavern, and gradually advanced to the rank of a popular actress at the theatre royal. She is represented as handsome, but low of stature. She was mistress, successively, to Hart, Lacy and Buckhurst, before she became the favorite of the king. It is said that, in her elevation, she showed her gratitude to Dryden, who had patronised her in her poverty; and, unlike the other mistresses, she was faithful to her royal lover. From her are sprung the dukes of St. Alban's. She died in 1687.

GYGES; a favorite of the Lydian king Candaules, who, to convince him of the beauty of his queen, showed her to him naked. The queen was so incensed at this shameful act, that she ordered Gyges either to murder the king, ascend his vacant throne, and become her husband, or to atone for his curiosity by death. After having labored in vain to shake the resolution of the queen, he chose the former part of the alternative, murdered Candaules, and was established on the throne in consequence of the response of the Delphian oracle. This is the story as related by Herodotus. There is a fable of a magic ring, which Gyges found in a cavern when a herdsman, and which had the power of rendering its possessor invisible, whenever he turned the stone inwards. By the aid of this ring, he enjoyed the embraces of the queen and assassinated the king. To have the ring of Gyges was afterwards used proverbially, sometimes of fickle, sometimes of wicked and artful, and sometimes of prosperous people, who obtain all they want.

GYMNASIUM; the name given by the Spartans to the public building where the young men, naked (hence the name, from yuvos, naked), exercised themselves in leaping,running, throwing the discus and spear, wrestling and pugilism, or in the pentathlon (quinquertium) so called. This Spartan

institution was imitated in most of the cities of Greece, and in Rome under the Cæsars. Its objects, however, did not remain confined merely to corporeal exercises, but were extended also to the exercise of the mind; for here philosophers, rhetoricians, and teachers of other branches of knowledge, delivered their lectures. In Athens, there were five gymnasia, and among them the Academy, the Lycæum and the Cynosarge. In the first, Plato taught; in the second, Aristotle; and in the third, Antisthenes. They were, at first, only open level places, surrounded by a wall, and partitioned off for the different games. Rows of planetrees were planted for the purpose of shade, which were afterwards changed into colonnades with numerous divisions. The gymnasia, at last, were composed of a number of connected buildings, spacious enough to admit many thousands. Vitruvius has given an exact description of the arrangement of them in his work on architecture (5, 11). Some gymnasia contained more, and some fewer apartments; and all were furnished with a multitude of decorations. Here were found the statues and altars of Mercury and Hercules, to whom the gymnasia were dedicated; sometimes, also, the statue of Theseus, the inventor of the art of wrestling; statues of heroes and celebrated men; paintings and bass-reliefs, representing subjects connected with religion and history. The Hermes figures (see Hermes) were among the most common ornaments of gymnasia. Here was assembled every thing that could improve the youth in the arts of peace and of war; every thing that could elevate and raise their minds; and, while these institutions flourished, the arts and sciences also flourished, and the state prospered. The governor of a gymnasium was called the gymnasiarch. Sometimes such a gymnasium was styled palastra, which was, properly, only the part where the athlete, destined for the public exhibitions, exercised themselves. Ignara is of opinion, that a distinction was made between the gymnasium and palæstra, at the time when the philosophers and others commenced their lectures here; that the latter was designed to promote physical, and the former mental education simply. In the latter sense, the high schools in Germany, where young men are fitted for the universities, have been called gymnasia, in modern times. In Rome, during the republic, there were no buildings which could be compared with the Greek gymnasia. Under the Cæsars,

the public baths bore some resemblance to them; and the gymnasia may be said to have expired with the thermæ. (See Gymnastics.)

Gymnasia, German. From the time of the revival of learning, when almost all knowledge was derived through the Latin and Greek,-and certainly no existing literature could be compared to that contained in these two languages,-the study of them obtained such possession of the schools, that it has, ever since, influenced the studies of youth in Europe, and particularly in Germany, to such a degree, that it is very difficult to restore the proper balance in schools of the higher kind. The gymnasia, the name of these schools in Germany (derived from the ancient term), taught Latin and Greek, and the branches connected with antiquity, almost to the exclusion of other sciences. But, in modern times, when the natural sciences have made such distinguished progress, and rich stores have accumulated in many modern literatures, and the importance of mathematics has been increased, the faults of this arrangement have become obvious, and some authorities, particularly in Prussia, have already established institutions, in which history, mathematics, natural philosophy and modern languages may be learned without Latin. In the gymnasia themselves, more time is allotted to these branches than formerly. The gymnasia of Prussia probably carry the scholar farther than any institutions of a similar kind elsewhere. No limits are fixed for the stay of the scholar in each class; every year an examination for the next class takes place, to which every scholar is admitted. Classes are generally divided into two sections, and a scholar cannot be promoted from the lower into the higher without an examination. The last examination, to show whether the pupils are fit to enter the university, is very severe: for three days they have to write exercises, on questions proposed to them, in history, the Latin and Greek languages, mathematics, besides themes in German, and in at least one foreign modern language, alone, shut up in a room, without books; or, if several are together, they remain under the eye of a professor, so that they cannot talk to each other. The verbal examination generally lasts one day, in presence of commissioners appointed by government. The compositions of the scholars are sent to the minister of instruction and ecclesiastical affairs. According to the result of the examination, the scholars receive testimonials, marked No. I, II, or III.

The first is difficult to gain, and indicates that the pupil has appeared peculiarly well. If private schools or (as is the case in several cities) orphan asylums wish to send scholars to the university, they must apply to government for commissioners to attend their examination. Persons who have fitted themselves for the university, without attending a gymnasium, or any school, can be examined by a committee appointed by the government, which sits every half year. In order to obtain No. I, the pupil must write Latin and Greek without grammatical faults, and in a pretty good style; be able to translate and explain one of the most difficult classic authors (in some gymnasia, Pindar is even taken for this purpose); be well acquainted with the branches of the lower pure mathematics, viz. all below the integral and differential calculus, and prove this by the solution of problems; have a knowledge of general history, and the most important periods; know, besides the German, one or more modern languages, so that he can write in them pretty correctly (themes are generally taken, by which the scholar shows his logical powers, and the soundness of his ideas). If he is to study theology, he is also examined in Hebrew. If he is deficient in either of these branches, he can only obtain No. II. If he is deficient in all, he receives No. III, which indicates that he is not fit for the university.

GYMNASTICS (from youvarikos, pertaining to exercise), if we understand by this word all bodily exercises, may be most conveniently divided into-1. military exercises; 2. exercises systematically adapted to develope the physical powers, and preserve them in perfection, which constitutes the art of gymnastics, properly so called; 3. exercises for the sick, a most important branch, which has been very little attended to. The ancients divided their gymnastics into gymnastica militaria, gymnastica medica (including under this head our second and third divisions), and gymnastica athletica, or, as Galen calls them, vitiosa, which were practised by professional athletes at the gymnastic games, and were in bad repute with reflecting men, even in those times, on account of their injurious effects on the health and morals. The class of gymnastics which we have enumerated under the second head, have their origin in the exercises of war and the chase. The preparation of youth for those occupations leads to the introduction of gymnastics; and the chase itself has been

considered by many nations as a preparation for war; the Spartans and American Indians are instances. The ancients do not inform us precisely of the origin of gymnastics, considered as a branch of education. We first find them in a systematic form among the Greeks. The first gymnasium is said to have been established in Sparta. In Athens, always disposed to mingle the element of the beautiful in whatever she undertook, gymnastics were refined from the rude military characters, which they bore among the Spartans, into an art; and the gymnasia became temples of the graces. (See Gymnasium.) Vitruvius (lib. v) gives a description of a gymnasium. In each, there was a place called palæstra, in which wrestling, boxing, running, leaping, throwing the discus, and other exercises of this kind, were taught. Gymnastics were afterwards divided into two principal branches-the palæstric, taking its name from the palæstra, and the orchestric. The former embraced the whole class of athletic exercises; the latter, dancing and the art of gesticulation. It is not known, with accuracy, what particular exercises were usually practised in the gymnasia. The enthusiasm for athletic sports among the Greeks, their love of the beautiful, which was gratified in the gymnasia by the sight of the finest human forms in the prime of youth, and by the halls and colonnades adorned with statues and pictures, and occupied by teachers of wisdom and philosophy, rendered these places the favorite resorts of the old and young. Gymnastics even formed an essential part of the celebration of all the great festivals. After a time, however, the character of the competitors at the Olympian, Isthmian, Nemæan, and other great games of Greece, degenerated, as they became more and more a separate class, exercising, at least in many cases, in buildings exclusively devoted to them. Euripides calls them useless and injurious members of the state. It is not precisely known to what extent their exercises were practised in the gymnasia. The Greeks, as well as the Romans, set a very high value upon the art of swimming. In Sparta, even the young women swam in the Eurotas; and a common phrase of contempt, μnte velv μnte yрaμμaтa επισταθεί (he can neither swim nor write), is well known. It is well worth while to read the observations of Mercurialis on this subject, in lib. iii, cap. 13, of his valuable Artis gymnastica apud Antiquos celeberri

mæ Libri sex (Venice, 1569). Running was also much esteemed, and the Olympiads were, for a long time, named from the victors in the race. Riding on horseback was deemed a liberal exercise. Dancing, by which we are not to understand the modern dancing of the two sexes intermingled, but the art of graceful motion, including oratorical gesture, together with certain formal dances performed at festivals, was likewise indispensable to an accomplished man. (See Lucian, πept opnews.) Wrestling was also much valued. There are not many materials remaining, to enable us to judge of the exercises practised by the Grecian women. In later and corrupt times, they took part in the public games with men. With the decline of Greece, the gymnastic art naturally degenerated, and became gradually reduced to the exercises of professional athletæ, which survived for a long time the ruin of the land of their birth. The Olympic games continued to be celebrated several centuries after Christ. Some late travellers have thought that they could find traces of the ancient games remaining even in our day. "You have the Pyrrhic dance as yet," says Byron. The Romans, under the emperors, imitated the gymnasia as they did every thing Grecian; but their establishments were little better than places of vicious gratification. The thermæ, or baths, in Italy, took the place of the gymnasia in Greece. Among the Romans, gymnastics never became national, as they may be said to have been among the Greeks. There are some indications, indeed, of early gymnastic games,-we mean the consualia; but with this stern, martial and practical nation, gymnastics took altogether a more military character. They were considered merely as preparatory to the military service, or, when they constituted a part of the exhibitions at festivals, were practised only by a particular class, trained for brutal entertainments, at which large bets were laid among the spectators, as is the custom at the English races. (Martial, ix, 68; Suetonius, Tit. 8.) Vegetius gives us information concerning the exercises in which the young soldiers were trained, and they were of very useful character. When all the acquisitions of the human intellect were lost for a season, and some for ever, in the utter corruption of the latter ages of the Roman empire, and the eruption of wandering barbarians, the gymnastic art perished. We may date its revival from the commencement of tournaments, the first of which were held in the

9th and 10th centuries in France, and may have had their origin in the military games of the Romans, aided by the martial spirit of the descendants of the German conquerors of France. They received, however, their full perfection from the spirit of chivalry. The first tournaments were fought with blunt weapons, which were called armes gracieuses. At a later period, sharp weapons were introduced, and many fatal encounters happened before the eyes of the ladies. About the year 1066, Godefroy de Preuelly collected the rules and customs of tournaments into a code, which was afterwards generally adopted. At a later period, the character of these celebrations degenerated so much, that they were finally prohibited by the pope and the emperor, as the Roman ludi had been several times prohibited by the emperors. With the superiority which, in the course of time, infantry began to acquire over cavalry, as it always does with the advance of civilization and scientific tactics (see Machiavelli's Treatise on the Art of War), and the invention of gunpowder, the institutions of chivalry declined. The heavy steel coats were done away, and the art of skilful fencing began to be introduced. The first treatises upon this subject appeared in the 16th century. The Italians were the first teachers, and three different schools, the Italian, French and German, were soon formed. We speak here of fencing with the small-sword; but the Germans also practised the art of fencing with a straight broad-sword, perhaps owing to their neighborhood to the Slavonian nations, who all prefer the cut to the thrust. The weapon of the Slavonians, however, is. the crooked sabre. At the same time, vaulting began to be much practised. The Roman desultores (Livy, xxiii, 29, and Vegetius), indeed, lead us to suppose that the Romans knew something of this art; and it was no doubt also practised by the knights of the middle ages; but the present art of vaulting is modern in its character, and carried to the greatest perfection in France. Fighting with a dagger, and even with a knife, was taught as useful in this turbulent age, and much skill was attained in Holland, in defence by the weapon last mentioned, perhaps owing to the fondness of the Dutch for public houses (estaminets), as this art may be called, by way of excellence, the fencing of the tavern. We even recollect having seen, in an appendix to old works on fencing, the art of defending one's self against attacks, with a pewter beer-pot. Wrest

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