found in Guiana, and grows to an enormous size, measuring about 32 inches between the tips of the two wings. It sucks the blood of men and cattle when they are fast asleep. After it is full, it disgorges the blood, and begins to suck afresh, until it reduces the sufferer to a state of great weakness. The rivers of Guiana abound with fish, many of which are highly prized by the inhabitants; and, owing to the heat and moisture of the climate, insects and reptiles of all sorts are produced in such abundance, that the annoyance from this source is inconceivable. These insects are flies, ants, mosquitoes, cockroaches, lizards, jack-spaniards, a large species of wasp, fire-flies, centipedes, &c. The native inhabitants of Guiana are continually receding from the districts which are occupied by the Europeans. They chiefly consist of the following tribes, viz., the Caribbees, the Worrows, the Accawaws, the Arrowauks. From the earliest period, the Dutch colonies in Guiana have been exposed to depredations from fugitive Negroes, who, at different periods, have been driven, by the cruelty of their masters, to take refuge in the woods. At one time, the colony was threatened with destruction from these bands of deserter slaves. As the European troops who were sent against this enemy generally fell a prey to the climate, a corps of manumitted Negroes was formed, by whom the slaves were pursued into the woods; and the colony has been since freed from this source of annoyance. GUIBERT, Jacques-Antoine-Hippolite, count of, was born at Montauban in 1743, educated at Paris, and accompanied his father to Germany, during the seven years' war, at the age of 13. In the battle of Bellinghausen, in 1761, finding that the orders which he carried were rendered unseasonable by a change of circumstances, he had the boldness to alter them, and adapt them to the existing state of affairs. In the Corsican war in 1766, he obtained the cross of St. Louis, and soon after, with the rank of colonel, the chief command of the newly-levied Corsican legion. He employed his leisure hours in literary occupations, and his Essai général de Tactique, précédé d'un Discours sur l'État de la Politique et de la Science militaire en Europe (London, 1772), probably written during the German campaigns, attracted the more attention, as at that time a reform was going on in almost all the armies. He afterwards travelled for military purposes through Germany. His journal, Journal d'un Voyage en Allemagne,

fait en 1773, Ouvrage posthume de Guibert, publié par sa Veuve, et précédé d'une Notice historique sur la Vie de l'Auteur, par Toulongeon, avec Figures (1803), was but a mere sketch for the author's use, but is interesting for its descriptions and anecdotes of celebrated men, especially of Frederic II, whose great character Guibert passionately admired. His tragedies have not retained their place upon the stage. In 1779 appeared his Défense du Système de Guerre moderne. In 1786, he became a member of the French academy. In 1787, he wrote his famous eulogy on Frederic II, one of the most splendid monuments ever raised to the memory of this great king. Guibert's eulogies, among which are one upon Thomas, and another upon l'Espinasse, are among his most finished works. Vigor, fancy, clearness, and a certain artlessness, engage the reader, and cause him to excuse many instances of negligence. Guibert was a field-marshal, and member of the council of war—an office which gave him much trouble. He died in 1790, in the 47th year of his age. He was distinguished for ambition and for activity of spirit.

GUICCIARDINI, Francis, a celebrated historian, was born March 6, 1482, at Florence, where his family was of distinguished rank. He obtained so great a reputation as a jurist, that in his 23d year he was chosen professor of law, and, although he had not yet reached the lawful age, was appointed ambassador to the court of Ferdinand the Catholic, of Spain. When Florence (1512) had lost her liberty through the usurpation of the Medici, he entered the service of that family, which soon availed themselves of his talents. He was invited by Leo X to his court, and intrusted with the government of Modena and Reggio. This office he discharged also under Adrian VI, to the general satisfaction; and afterwards, when Clement VII (de' Medici) ascended the papal chair, Guicciardini was sent, as luogotenente of the pope, to Romagna, then torn by the factions of the Guelfs and Gibelines, and infested by robbers, where, by a severe and upright administration of justice, he soon succeeded in restoring tranquillity. He also contributed here in other ways to the public good, by constructing roads, by erecting public buildings, and by founding useful institutions. Having been appointed lieutenant-general of the pope, he defended Parma with great valor, when besieged by the French (at least he says so in his own history; Angeli, author of a history of Parma, accuses him, on the

contrary, of great cowardice). At a later period, after the death of Giovanni de' Medici, Guicciardini was invited by the Florentines to succeed him in the command of the famous bande nere; but the pope still claimed his services for a time, Having quelled an urrection in Bologna, he returned, in spite of the instances of the holy father, to his native city, where, in 1534, he began his great work, on the History of Italy, which has since been repeatedly published, and has obtained for him great reputation. It extends from 1490 to 1534. In his retirement he was not without influence on state affairs, and his counsels often restrained the prodigality and the ambition of Alessandro de' Medici, who esteemed him very highly, as did likewise Charles V, whose interests he had promoted in his negotiations at Naples, and who, when his courtiers once complained that he preferred the Florentines to them, answered, "I can make a hundred Spanish grandees in a minute, but I cannot make one Guicciardini in a hundred years." When Alessandro de' Medici was murdered by one of his relations (Lorenzino, 1536), and the Florentines, under the direction of cardinal Cibo, wished to restore the republican constitution, Guicciardini opposed it with all his power, and maintained that to preserve the state from becoming the prey of foreigners or of factions, the monarchical form of government ought to be retained. His eloquence and the force of his arguments triumphed, and Cosmo de' Medici was proclaimed grandduke of Florence. Guicciardini died in 1540, and, according to his own directions, was buried, without pomp, in the church Santa Felicità in Florence. It is related of him,that his love for study was so great,that, like Leibnitz, he often passed two or three days without rest or food. One of his works, which was afterwards translated into French, his Advice on political Subjects, was published in 1525, at Antwerp. The Florentine J. B. Adriani (who died 1579), in his Istoria de' suoi Tempi (new edition, 1823), which may be regarded as a continuation of the work of Guicciardini, has given a good narrative of events between 1536 and 1574. This work was first published after the death of the author in 1583. The reader of Guicciardini is sometimes offended by a want of method. A more important defect, however, is, that his statements cannot always be depended on as derived from the best sources, so that he must be read with caution. One of the best criticisms on Guicciardini is contained in Leopold Ranke's

Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtschreiber (Leipsic and Berlin, 1824). Guicciardini has often been called the Italian Polybius. Of the 20 books of his history, the 4 last are unfinished, and are to be considered only as rough drafts. He is much too prolix, and the satirist Boccalini, in his Ragguagli di Parnaso, makes a Spartan, who has been condemned to read Guicciardini for having used three words when he could have expressed his meaning in two, faint away at the first sentence. Guicciardini also wrote poems. In the beginning of a poetical epistle, entitled Supplicazione d'Italia al Cristianissimo Re Francesco Primo, he expresses the feeling so commonly exhibited by Italian writers, ever since the time of Dante, in regard to the distracted state of their country. The epistle begins thus :Italia afflitta, nuda e miseranda,

Ch' or de' principi suoi stanca si lagna, A Te, Francesco, questa carta manda. GUIDES; in some armies, persons particularly acquainted with the ground, who serve in the staff, to give the necessary information, and point out the best route for an army. As it is, however, impossible always to have officers of this kind, some armies have geographical engineers attached to the staff, whose particular studies are geography, and topography. Napoleon gave the name of guides to his first body of guards, formed after he had been on the point of being surprised and taken prisoner in a castle on the Mincio (see his own account, Las Cases' Mémorial, &c. vol. ii, p. 3, ed. of 1824.)

GUIDO ARETINO. (See Aretino.)

GUIDO RENI; the most charming and graceful painter whom Italy ever produced. His family name was Reni, but he is always called Guido. In fact, many of the old masters are best known by their Christian names. He was born at Bologna, in 1575. His father, Samuel Reni, an excellent musician, at first intended that his son should devote himself to music, for which he showed some talent; but he soon discovered in the boy a greater genius for painting, and had him instructed by the Dutch artist Dionysius Calvaert (q. v.), who was then in high repute at Bologna. In this celebrated school, Guido is said to have studied chiefly the works of Albert Dürer. This becomes probable if we consider some of his earlier works, in which, particularly in the drapery, occasional resemblance may be traced to the style of Albert Dürer. In the mean time, the school of the Caracci, at Bologna, on account of its novelty and superior

taste, began to eclipse the former, and Guido joined it in his 20th year. He soon gave his teachers occasion to admire his talents, and is even said to have excited the jealousy of Annibal Caracci. Guido's desire to behold the treasures of art in Rome, induced him to visit that city, with two of his fellow students, Domenichino and Albani. There he saw some of the paintings of Caravaggio, who was greatly admired for his powerful and expressive (though often coarse and low) manner, which Guido imitated. His rep utation soon spread, and cardinal Borghese employed him to paint a crucifixion of St. Peter for the church Delle Tre Fontane. The powerful manner of this picture, and several others of the same period, which Guido did not, however, long retain, increased his fame; and when, at the cardinal's request, he completed the Aurora, so beautifully engraved by Morghen, the admiration was universal. Paul V, at that time, employed him to embellish a chapel on Monte Cavallo, with scenes from the life of the virgin Mary. Guido accomplished this work to the satisfaction of the pope, and was next intrusted with the painting of another chapel in Santa-Maria Maggiore. These works were followed by so many orders, that he was unable to execute them all. To this period his Fortuna, and the portraits of Sixtus V and cardinal Spada, may be assigned. Guido's paintings are generally considered as belonging to three different manners and periods. The first comprises those pictures which resemble the manner of the Caracci, and particularly that of Caravaggio. Deep shades, narrow and powerful lights, strong coloring, in short, an effort after great effect, distinguish his works of this first period. The second manner is completely opposed to the first, and was adopted by Guido himself as a contrast to the works of Caravaggio, with whom he was in constant controversy. Its principal features are light coloring, little shade, an agreeable, though often superficial treatment of the subject. It is quite peculiar to Guido. His Aurora forms the transition from the first to the second style of his paintings. A third period commences at the time when Guido worked with too much haste to finish his pieces, and was more intent upon the profits of his labor than upon its fame. It may be distinguished by a greenish gray, and altogether unnatural coloring, and by a general carelessness and weakness. This last manner is particularly remarkable, in the large standard,

with the patron saint of Bologna, and more or less in a number of other paintings of that period. During the government of pope Urban VIII, Guido quarrelled with his treasurer, cardinal Spinola, respecting the price of a picture, and returned to Bologna. There he had already executed his St. Peter and Paul for the house Zampiere, and the Murder of the Innocents for the Dominican church, and was on the point of embellishing the chapel of the saint with his pictures, when he was called back to Rome, loaded with honors, and received by the pope himself in the most gracious manner. But he soon experienced new difficulties, and accepted an invitation to go to Naples. Believing himself unsafe at this place, on account of the hatred of the Neapolitan artists against foreign painters, he returned once more to his native city, never to quit it again. At Bologna, he finished the chapel above mentioned, painted two beautiful pictures for the church Dei Mendicanti, an Ascension of Mary for Genoa, and a number of others for his native city and other places, particularly for Rome. While in Rome, Guido had established a school. In Bologna, the number of his pupils amounted to 200. He now worked mostly in haste, accustomed himself to an unfinished, affected style, became negligent, had many things executed by his pupils, and sold them, after having retouched them, as his own works; and all this merely to satisfy his unfortunate passion for gambling. He often sold his paintings at any price, and became involved in pecuniary embarrassments, which were the cause of his death, in 1642. If we analyze Guido's productions, we find his drawing not always correct, rarely powerful and grand, his attitudes without much selection, sometimes not even natural. Yet his drawing has a grace peculiar to him, a loveliness consisting rather in the treatment of the whole, than in the execution of the parts. This grace and loveliness are often to be found only in his heads. His ideas are generally common, the distribution of the whole rarely good; hence his larger works have not a pleasing effect, and are not so much valued as his smaller works, particularly his half-lengths, of which he painted a great number. The disposition of his drapery is generally easy and beautiful, but often not in harmony with the whole piece, and with the nature of the substance which it is intended to represent. An elevated, varied, distinct expression is not to be looked for in his works. For this reason, he rarely

succeeded in adult male figures, in which power and firmness are to be represented. The best are from his early period. But Guido's element was the representing of youthful, and particularly female figures. In them he manifested his fine instinct for the delicate, graceful, charming, tender and lovely. This is shown particularly in his eyes, turned towards heaven, in his Madonnas and Magdalens. His coloring is rarely true, often falls into yellowish, greenish and silver gray, yet is generally agreeable, and proves the very great ease and power with which he managed his pencil, which, however, often degenerates into mannerism. Guido not only worked in relievo,but also executed some statues, and a considerable number of etchings, with his own hand, which exhibit ease and delicacy, and are much esteemed. It might almost be said, that his drawing, in these engravings, is more. correct and noble than even in his paintings. Among the number of his pupils, who remained more or less faithful to his style, are distinguished, Guido Congiagi, Simone Contarini Pesarese, Francesco Ricchi, Andr. Streni, Giovanni Sementi, G. Bat. Bolognini. GUIENNE. (See Aquitania, and Department.)

GUIGNES, Joseph de, born at Pontoise, in 1721, is distinguished for his knowledge of the Oriental languages, which he studied under the celebrated Stephen Fourmont. He was appointed royal interpreter in 1745, and, in 1753, was chosen a member of the academy of belles-lettres. He applied himself particularly to the study of the Chinese characters; and, comparing them with those of the ancient languages, he thought he had discovered that they were a kind of monograms, formed from three Phoenician letters, and therefore concluded that China must have been peopled by an Egyptian colony. The Journal des Savans, and the Memoirs of the Academy, he enriched, during the space of 35 years, with a great number of contributions, which display profound learning, great sagacity, and many new views. At the age of near 80, he was reduced to poverty by the revolution; but, even in this situation, he retained his equanimity, his disinterestedness and his independence, which would not allow him to receive support from any one. He died at Paris, in 1800. Among his numerous works, the first place belongs to his Histoire Générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mogols et des autres Tartares Occidentaux (five volumes, 4to.). In this work, the materials for which he had drawn from

valuable, and, in part, untouched stores of Eastern knowledge, to which he had gained access by a profound study of the languages, much light is thrown upon the history of the caliphates, of the crusades, and, generally, of the Eastern nations. As regards industry, he has given us no cause to complain; but we often feel the want of a careful style, of a nice taste and a just discrimination. The language frequently shows marks of neglect. A better taste would have given a more powerful translation of the peculiar Oriental expressions. He needed a more philosophic mind to understand fully the poetry of the East, to lay open the causes of events, to point out the most striking circumstances, which he has often slightly passed over. De Guignes, like Her! lot, drew from a large number of manuscripts, and, like him, often falls into repetitions and sometimes contradictions. His Mémoire dans lequel on prouve que les Chinois sont une Colonie Egyptienne is of great value. Translations of the Chou King (by father Gaubil), one of the sacred books of the Chinese, and of the Military Art among the Chinese (by Amyot), were revised and published by De Guignes, besides other pieces, and 28 papers in the Memoirs of the Academy, and contributions to the Notices et Extraits de la Bibliothèque royale. His son Christian, born in 1759, was likewise skilled in the Chinese language and literature, and wrote several dissertations upon them. His Chinese dictionary, with the definitions in French and Latin, is a masterpiece of typography, and is generally esteemed.

GUILD; a society, fraternity, or company, associated for carrying on commerce, or some particular trade. The merchant guilds of our ancestors answer to our modern corporations. The societies of tradesmen, exclusively authorized to practise their art, and governed by the laws of their constitution, played a very important part in the middle ages. Few institutions show the progress of civilization in a stronger light than that of guilds, from the first rude mixture of all kinds of labor, its division, the establishment of corporations, the corruption of these by privileges, which are in some cases highly absurd, down to their total abolition, and the restoration of liberty to human industry. Though the division of labor is comparatively of recent date, yet the division of the people by occupations is one of the oldest and rudest political, institutions of which history makes mention. These divisions by occupations or

castes (q. v.), generally took their rise, however, from a difference of national origin, as with the Egyptians, Indians, &c. The Romans had various mechanical fraternities (collegia et corpora opificum) which might be compared to modern guilds, as they had the right to enact by-laws. In the later times of the republic, these societies not unfrequently appeared as political parties; and, on this account, their influence was restrained, and they were partly abolished after the establishment of the monarchy. In Italy, the cradle of the class of free citizens in the middle ages, and particularly in the Lombard cities, those connecting links between the ancient and modern civilization, some remains of these Roman institutions, or recollections of them, probably contributed to revive the guilds, which naturally presented themselves as an excellent means of supporting the citizens against the nobility, by uniting them into powerful bodies. With the increasing importance of the cities, which became the seats of industry, and with the establishment of their constitutions, begins also the extension of guilds. The chief reason that mechanical industry was freely developed in the middle ages, at the same time with agricultural, which had been exclusively cultivated by the Greeks and Romans, was the independence which the mechanics acquired with the growth of municipal and civil liberty. Mechanical industry has always been essentially of a democratic character, and would never have flourished under the feudal system. It is not possible now to give the exact date of the origin of these societies in Upper Italy. Traces of them are found in the 10th century. Thus, in Milan, we find the mechanics united under the name credentia. It is certain that small societies of mechanics existed as early as the 12th century, which appear, in the following century, to have been in the possession of important political privileges. We even meet with abuses in these bodies as early as this period; and, several centuries later, the guilds became the subject of bitter and just complaint, particularly those in Germany. When the advantages of these associations became known and felt, they rapidly increased; and, in the struggles of the citizens and the nobility, the principal resistance against the latter was made by the corporations. As soon as the citizens acquired an influence on the administration, the guilds became the basis of the municipal constitutions, and every one, who wished to participate in

the municipal government, was obliged to become the member of a guild. Hence we find so often distinguished people belonging to a class of mechanics, of whose occupation they probably did not know any thing. This mixture of social and political character, as well as the insignificance of the individual, considered merely as such, is a natural consequence of the rudeness of the period. Just principles are the work of time. It is only by slow degrees that the true is separated from the false, the essential from the unessential. Political, like religious and scientific principles, are at first always vague and incoherent. Men must have long experience of the concrete before they form just notions of the abstract. Thus it is a characteristic of the middle ages, that political rights were considered as arising from special privileges. All that men enjoyed was looked upon as a gift from the lord paramount. In fact, the idea of the rights of man, as an individual, has been developed only in very recent times. Even the ancient republics had no just conception of it. In Germany, the establishment of guilds was also intimately connected with that of the constitutions of the cities. (q. v.) The latter were different according as the ancient Roman, or the old German organization of the community prevailed; the relations among the mechanics were also very different. The mechanical arts were at first chiefly practised by the villeins; and, even in the time of Charle magne, they appear to have been pursued on the estates of the feudal lords, by the bondsmen, as is still the case on the great possessions of Russian noblemen. Commerce could not, however, be carried on by bondsmen (in Russia they are permitted to trade). Although there early existed free mechanics, yet they were also under the protection and jurisdiction of the feudal lord, before the privileges of the cities were acknowledged, except in cities of Roman origin (for instance, Cologne). These privileges early secured to them, as a distinct class of vassals, a sort of organization under the direction of the masters of each trade, as appears from the oldest law of the city of Strasburg, which seems to belong to the 15th century; and out of this the guilds in Germany may have originated. (See Eichhorn's Deutsche Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte, vol. ii; and his Treatise on the Origin of the Constitutions of German Cities, in the Zeitschrift für Geschichtliche Rechtswissenshchaft, vol. i, No. 2, and vol. ii, No. 2; and Hüllmann's Geschichte des Ursprungs der Städte in