Fundy; on the south it marches from this bay, with that of America, completely across the continent. At first it separates New Brunswick from Maine, then, bending westward, and afterwards southward,1 it eventually strikes the St. Lawrence between Montreal and Kingston, following thence the navigable channel of that river through the great lakes of Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior, to Lake of the Woods, whence, striking the 49th parallel of latitude, it runs along that to the Pacific Ocean. On the west it is formed by that sea as far north as Alaska, and thence to the Arctic Ocean by United States territory again.2

Thus for some 4,000 miles, from the Bay of Fundy westward to the Pacific, and from the southern point of Alaska to the Arctic Sea, the Canadian boundary adjoins the United States.

But if we look at the course of the St. Lawrence from Lake Superior to the Atlantic, we shall see that that river, with the vast lakes through which it passes, forms for defensive purposes a water frontier to the south of Canada for a distance of about halfway from the Pacific to the Atlantic— i.e., from the west of Lake Superior to Gaspé, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Therefore, in addition to her ocean frontier to the west, north, and east, Canada, along the eastern half of her southern border, possesses in effect a water frontier of between 1,800 and 1,900

1 Till it reaches and runs along the 45th parallel of latitude.

2 Although Canada forms, geographically, a large portion of North America, the term "America" is used throughout these pages in its commonly-accepted signification-i.e., to mean the United States of America. Alaska was purchased from Russia by the United States.

miles,1 across which, from Montreal eastward, owing to the actual boundary-line there running south of the St. Lawrence, she can push her outposts on Canadian territory beyond that river towards Lake Champlain.

What such a length of water frontier as from 1,800 to 1,900 miles means, can be realized by our mentioning that if, from the mouth of the Thames, a line were drawn round the United Kingdom-i.e., northward round Scotland, westward round Ireland, and southward along the English Channel to the Thames again-it will come to just about this distance.

Let us now touch briefly upon the character of the inland waters of Canada.

Hudson Bay, about 1,000 miles long by 600 broad-i.e., larger than the Black Sea, the Baltic, or the Adriatic communicates with the Atlantic

through Hudson Straits. This bay has hitherto been used comparatively little for commercial purposes by settled Canada, being too remote in accessibility, though not in mere distance; but now it is about to be connected by rail with the great Canadian trans-continental lines.

As each year goes by, although for some months it is closed by ice, it will become more and more during the open season a main channel by which the produce of the granaries of Western Canada will reach the British Isles, for it is both a water (and therefore the cheapest) channel, and the shortest channel.

1 The course of the St. Lawrence throughout its windings to the actual sea is estimated as 2,384 miles (Stanford's Compendium of Geography).

The River St. Lawrence, rising not far from the source of the Mississippi,1 enters Lake Superior as the "St. Louis "; between Lakes Superior and Huron, rushing with a rapid current, it becomes the "Sault St. Marie "; between Lakes Huron and St. Clair, the "St. Clair"; between Lakes St. Clair and Erie, the "Detroit "; between Lakes Erie and Ontario, the "Niagara," pouring over the Niagara Falls; between Lake Ontario and the Atlantic, the "St. Lawrence." But geographically it is the one great river St. Lawrence.

Canada is largely a country of wood, river, and lake, and it may assist to convey the idea of the extent and volume of fresh water along the southern frontier of the Dominion (including the American lakes of Champlain and Michigan) to say that it amounts to "one-half of the fresh water of the globe."2

The St. Lawrence, except from about December to April, when ice closes it, is navigable for ocean steamers as high up as Montreal.3 The great lakes also, though some of their shallows and bays are in winter frozen over, remain in their central portion open water throughout the year, and their size admits of fleets manoeuvring upon their surface. "Fresh water," exclaims Kipling, "has no right, as it does here, to roar in on mud and sand beaches, between vast headlands, that run out for leagues into haze and sea-fog."4

1 See map facing concluding page.

2 Chambers's Encyclopædia of North America.

3 And by canal and the lakes for vessels of considerable draught to

the head of Lake Superior.

+ Rudyard Kipling (Morning Post, March 26, 1908).

The larger Canadian lakes of Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario-the two first of which have a surface area approaching to that of Ireland-vary in length and breadth, as can be seen from the map. The measurements of their circuits, following the sinuosities of the coastline, are given thus in the National Encyclopædia, or Dictionary of Universal Knowledge: Superior, 1,740 miles; Huron, 1,000 miles; Erie, 658 miles; and Ontario, 467 miles. The mean depth of the most shallow is 84 feet.

Thus, were it not that the lakes and the greater part of the St. Lawrence are of fresh, and not salt, water, Canada would be for three-fourths of her entire circumference sea-girt, and she is to that extent water-girt.

Of that eastern portion of her southern boundary which comprises the great lakes it is, for defence purposes, to be noted that towards both flanks lie the American lakes of Champlain on the east and Michigan on the west; also that at the western end of Lake Erie the boundary turns northward, at a right angle, through Lake Huron, so that the possession of ascendancy upon that lake (Huron) lays the flank and rear of Upper Canada open to

attack.

Lastly, that the United States territory of Michigan forms the western shore of Lake Huron, to which lake access is gained from Lake Michigan through the Straits of Mackinac.1

1 The full name is "Michilimackinac "— usually abbreviated to Mackinac, and sometimes Mackinaw.

But there are two special features affecting defence to be noticed in connection with this water frontier.

One is that the St. Lawrence, although below Quebec it varies from ten miles to thirty miles in width, narrows above it to two miles, and in places to much less.1 It is It is interrupted by rapids and waterfalls at certain points, such as by the rapids and falls of Sault St. Marie between Lakes Superior and Huron, by the rapids and falls of Niagara, and the rapids between Kingston and Montreal. All these, however, are now turned by canals,2 which are being steadily deepened, so that large ocean-going vessels of over 10,000 tons burthen, which can now navigate the upper lakes, will ultimately be able, without breaking bulk, to bear freight from Lake Superior to Great Britain and Europe.

The other is, to quote from Dr. Parkin,3 that "for some months of every year an icy fingerthrust from the North touches these waterways, and all navigation (i.e., through navigation) ceases."

The St. Lawrence and the canals between lake and lake become frozen over, ports may be closed by ice, and vessels cannot ascend from the sea. Then, to all intents and purposes, as far as defence is concerned, this water frontier becomes in parts a land one. Moreover, at all seasons, with the artillery and small arms of the present day, the Canadian and American shores are at points of it

1 Where it issues from Lake Ontario, it is over two miles wide. 2 In the war of 1812-14 these canals (see Chapter VI.) did not exist. 3 "The Railway Development of Canada," by Dr. G. R. Parkin, C.M.G. (Scottish Geographical Magazine, May, 1909).