HISTORY OF EUROPE. CHAPTER XV. RUSSIA AND TURKEY, FROM THE ACCESSION OF NICHOLAS IN 1825, TO THE PEACE OF ADRIANOPLE IN 1829. 1. It is a markworthy circumstance, ! 2. Placed on the confines of Europe that all the serious wars in Europe, and Asia, the hereditary enemy, in between 1815 and 1830, occurred be- every age, of the Mohammedan faith, tween the Christians and the Moham- it was impossible that Russia could medans. The English attack on Al-long escape this general antagonistic giers in 1816, the French capture of the same place in 1830, the Greek revolution and its seven bloody campaigns, the war of 1826 between the Russians and the Persians, that of 1828 between the Russians and Turks, all partook of this character. Even the distant contests of the English in India were at last of the same description; the Mussulman soldiers were not the least formidable that the English had to encounter on the ramparts of Bhurtpore, and on the plains of the Doab; and they never ran such danger as when they approached Ghuznee, the cradle of Mohammedan power in Central Asia. It would seem that, when the social contests of Europe itself are hushed, the ancient and indelible hostility of the European to the barbarian breaks forth; and that, when all domestic grounds of dissension have been removed from civilised man, the inherent causes of discord, arising from difference of race, religion, and physical circumstances between him and more savage tribes, never fail to arm one part of the species against the other. VOL. III. But with movement of Islamism and Christi- A British Government towards effecting | Caucasus wrested from them, before a settlement of the Eastern question, any declaration of war had been made by securing the virtual independence between the two countries. of Greece; and the protocol of 4th April 1826, signed by the Duke of Wellington and Count Nesselrode, which, as already mentioned, laid the foundation of that independence, was one of the most popular and agreeable acts of the new reign. 4. The intelligence of the commencement of these hostilities reached the Emperor Nicholas during the festivities of his coronation at Moscow, in August 1826; but it related to too distant a province to occasion any interruption to that joyous event. Orders were sent to General Yermoloff, who commanded the troops beyond the Caucasus, to concentrate his men, and attack the enemy; and these orders were executed by that able general with decisive effect. On the 2d (14th) September Prince Madatoff with his division assailed Abbas Mirza, who was at the head of eight thousand soldiers, and so entirely defeated him that nearly his whole army dispersed. Advancing after this success, Madatoff joined the division of Aidede-camp-General Paskewitch. The latter officer assumed the command of the little army, consisting of six thou-. sand infantry, three thousand cavalry, and twelve guns, and now first gave evidence of his great military talents. He marched direct against the main Persian force, composed of twenty thou 3. The last treaty between Russia and Persia, concluded on 24th October 1813, under the mediation of Great Britain, had recognised the principle of uti possedetis; and so largely had Russia been a gainer by previous hostilities that she acquired a very great accession both of territory and influence on that occasion. She had crossed the ridge of the Caucasus, established herself in a solid way between the Caspian and the Black Sea, and spread her dominion far to the south in the vast province of Grandscha, better known under the name of Georgia. The influence of Russia, however, by these acquisitions, was ere long felt by the Persian Government to be too great for a lasting pacification. Various disputed questions of territory still remained unadjusted; they had, under the terror of their new and formid-sand regular infantry, twelve thousand able neighbour, drawn more closely their connection with the British Government; and a considerable number of English officers had communicated to the tumultuary array of Teheran, in a certain degree, the consistency of European organisation and discipline. Aware of these hostile preparations, the Emperor Nicholas, soon after his brother's death, despatched Prince Menschikoff upon a friendly mission, ostensibly to notify his accession to the throne, really to endeavour to effect an arrangement of the disputed points of territory. But this mission proved unavailing; the Prince Abbas Mirza was intoxicated with the thought of commanding an army of fifty thousand men, armed and disciplined in the European method; and so strong did the war party become, that hostilities were commenced, and a consider-quence of this check, the Persians reable part of the territories occupied, treated across the Araxes; and the by the Russians to the south of the Russian detachment towards the Cas horse, eight thousand irregulars, and pian, on the left, having gained similar advantages, the Muscovites again recovered and received the submission of the whole provinces which they had occupied before the war. demands of his imperial master, and required their unconditional acceptance within six weeks, failing which, hostilities were to commence. These conditions were -1. The immediate re-establishment of the two principalities and Servia in the condition in which they were prior to the commencement of the troubles of 1821; 2. The instant redress of all their grievances, conformable to the treaty of Bucharest in 1812; 3. The evacuation of these provinces by the Ottoman troops, and the liberation of the Servian deputies, whom they still held in detention; and, 4. An entire satisfaction to Russia for the insult offered 5. Some idea of the strength of the Russian empire at this period may be formed from the result of a general survey and enumeration of the inhabitants, which took place in the course of this year. From this it appeared that the entire superficies of the empire in Europe, Asia, and America, consisted of 375,154 square German miles (sixteen to an English); the population to 59,534,000; the excess of births over deaths to 700,000; and the army to 1,039,000 men, of whom, how-to her by the silence observed in reever, not more than 600,000 could be relied on as effective. The revenue amounted to 388,000,000 francs, or £11,500,000.* Various important regulations were at the same time made for the establishment of military colonies, especially in the newly-acquired territories beyond the Caucasus, which promised at length to give consistency to the Russian dominion in those vast recent acquisitions. 6. The interminable negotiations between the Russian and Turkish Governments regarding the subjects of complaint which the former had against the latter for violating the clause in favour of its Christian subjects, contained in the treaties of Kainardji and Bucharest, appeared this year to have reached an extraordinary and unlooked-for issue. The Ottoman Government, impatient to bring the Greek war to a termination, and intent on the prosecution of the siege of Missolonghi, resolved to dissemble, and avert the threatened invasion of a hundred thousand Russians from Bessarabia by a temporary submission. M. Miniacki, the Russian chargéd'affaires, had on 5th April presented a note, in which he recapitulated the * Russia in Europe, Russia in Asia, Russia in America, gard to former notes. Contrary to all expectation, the Divan, at the expiration of the prescribed period, gave in their entire and unqualified adherence to the demands of the Cabinet of St Petersburg; the Servian deputies were immediately set at liberty, and orders despatched for the instant evacuation of the principalities and Servia. 7. This sudden acquiescence in the demands of Russia, and departure from the old procrastinating policy of the Turkish Government, excited at the time general surprise in Europe; but it soon appeared that it was the result of a deep-laid design, and formed part of a change of policy long contemplated in Turkey, and which its Government now considered itself strong enough to carry into effect. The janizaries had for ages been the terror of the government at Constantinople, and more than once they had prescribed their own terms to the Sultan, and even imbrued their hands in his blood. Various projects had at different times been formed for the breaking of their pride and the curtailing of their influence; but they all had hitherto proved abortive, from the want of any adequate armed force at hand to restrain the hostility and Square German miles 2,293 276,000 24,000 375,154 -Rapport semi-officiel, Dec. 30, 1826; Annuaire Historique, ix. 369. Population. 44,118,600 3,702,300 11,663,100 50,000 59,534,000 coerce the excesses of these unruly defenders. The present Sultan, whose predecessor, Selim, had been dethroned and murdered in his attempt to shake off the authority of these imperious masters, had been obliged at the commencement of his reign to dissemble, and he had not only been forced to abolish the Nizam Djedib, or new troops, but to swear to preserve all the privileges of the janizaries, and even to enrol himself in one of their regiments or ortas, for his service in which he regularly drew pay. But his determination was not the less irrevocably taken; he was only dissembling, to gain time for their destruction. During the interval he was indefatigable | in his efforts to gain the confidence of the Oulemas, or learned and legal bodies; and the long wars with Ali Pacha and the Greeks had both afforded evidence of the necessity of putting the military force on a new footing, and giving time for the formation of a very considerable body of men, who might be relied on in the convulsion which was approaching. The preparations were now so far advanced that, though the janizaries saw their danger, they did not feel themselves in sufficient strength openly to take steps against it. Fourteen thousand topjees or artillerymen had been distributed in the barracks in and around Constantinople; and as they were the avowed rivals of the janizaries, and had been enrolled to coerce them, the utmost pains had been taken to secure their fidelity by every possible means. The pacha who commanded them, as well as the Grand Vizier, Capitan Pacha, and their own aga or general, were all devoted to Sultan Mahmoud, who had also secured the support of the muftis, and the powerful body of the Oulema. 8. In the end of May, after the differences with Russia had been adjusted, Government took the first step in the proposed reform of the janizaries, by the promulgation of a new plan of organisation, which, although cautiously conceived, to avoid exciting their jealousy, was yet calculated, when carried into full effect, to give a fatal blow to their influence. Their statutes and privileges were preserved entire, and all those who drew pay or emoluments allowed to continue them during their lives; but the existing holders of these immunities were not to be permitted to sell or alienate them, and at their demise they were entirely to cease. From the ortas, or regiments, a hundred and ninety-six in number, fifty were to be selected to furnish a hundred and fifty men each, who were to be incorporated with the new troops, and clothed and disciplined after the European fashion. This hatti-sheriff was sanctioned by the signature of the Sultan, and of all the dignitaries of the State, and instantly proclaimed in all the mosques and places of public resort in the capital and chief cities of the empire. The pay of the new troops was raised to thirty paras a-day for private men, and to the officers in proportion. In addition to this, they were to receive dress and arms complete from the Government, the latter consisting of a musket, sabre, and bayonet to each man; the former of a vest of red cloth, a pair of pantaloons of blue, and a cap of green cloth, edged with black sheepskin. Notwithstanding the magnitude of these changes, they had been so prepared, with the consent of the muftis, oulemas, and several of the chiefs of the janizaries themselves, that no resistance was at first experienced; the decree was read in the mosques without opposition; Egyptian officers began to drill the selected men; the clothing was served out; and as no new impost was imposed, the people remained quiet, and seemed disposed to acquiesce without opposition in the new order of things. 9. This state of matters continued for the first fortnight, and it was hoped the danger had blown over; but it soon appeared that these hopes were fallacious, and that a desperate conflict awaited the Government in their attempt to introduce the new regulations. The furnishing of the hundred and fifty men from the selected ortas went on without difficulty in the capital and neighbouring towns; but when the recruits began to be drilled and marched in the European fashion, the discon- | of the dress actually worn by the Protents at once broke out. On the even-phet, was brought forth from the ing of the 14th of June the ill-humour sacred treasury, where it had so long of the troops assumed the form of open lain, shrouded from the eyes of the mutiny: the new regulations were stig- faithful, and conveyed to the mosque matised as a violation of the law of the of Sultan Achmet, with the whole soProphet, and the men were worked up lemnities practised on such occasions, to such a pitch that they burst in a which is of the rarest occurrence, and tumultuous manner from their barracks, only resorted to on the most extreme assailed the palace of the Grand Vizier, danger. At the same time the public the Capitan Pacha, their own aga, and criers in every quarter published a prothe Pacha of Egypt's diplomatic agent, clamation denouncing the janizaries as which they plundered in the most enemies to the Prophet and his holy shameful manner. These exalted func-religion, and calling on every true betionaries only saved themselves by a liever to rally without delay around precipitate flight; and if the insurgents the standard of Mahomet. had been conducted with more ability, and marched in the first moment of alarm on the Sultan's palace and the batteries, they would in all probability have proved successful, and might without difficulty have imposed their own terms on the Government. But being destitute of leaders of prudence or foresight, they neglected these obvi-ers of the Prophet. The regular force ous and necessary measures; and instead of improving their victory, when only half gained they thought of enjoying its fruits. Accordingly, after the pillage of the palaces, they dispersed among the wine-vaults in the neighbourhood, and gave themselves up to the most revolting excesses. 11. These decisive measures had an instantaneous effect. The streets were immediately filled with a prodigious crowd of Mussulmans, of all ages and descriptions, fully armed, and inspired with the utmost zeal, who hastened to the various rallying points assigned them, to swell the array of the follow assembled amounted to ten thousand men; and the preparations being deemed complete, the rebels were three times summoned to lay down their arms, and return to their allegiance to Mahomet and his vicegerent the Sultan. They positively refused, until they had received the heads of the 10. The Sultan and his ministers Grand Vizier, of their own aga, of turned to much better account the Hussein Pacha, and of Redschid-Efbreathing-time afforded by the intoxi- fendi. These demands being of course cation of their antagonists. The Grand refused, a decree was hastily passed Seignior hastened to Constantinople declaring the abolition of the janizafrom his beautiful palace of Benhick-ries, and ordering Hussein Pacha to tash, on the shores of the Bosphorus, march against the rebels. They, on and put himself at the head of the top-their side, prepared for the most vigorjees or artillerymen, and faithful troops ous resistance; the Atmeidan was of every description, which were direct- filled with ferocious bands, whose ed from all quarters upon the capital. cheering was incessant; and the overA large park of artillery was brought turning of all their camp-kettles, the from the arsenal of Topkhana, the well-known signal of determined regunners of which were entirely at his volt, told but too plainly that they devotion; and the Sultan, whose gal- were resolved to sell their lives as lant bearing animated the courage of dearly as possible. The combat, when all his adherents, soon found himself the topjees approached, was brief but at the head of the chief civil function- terrible. The janizaries commenced aries and principal military authori- an immediate discharge of small-arms, ties of the empire. By their advice--which was kept up with great rapidity, indeed, by their express orders-the and resolutely withstood several rounds famous Sandjak Sheriff, or sacred of grape-shot at point-blank range from standard, said to be composed of part the artillery. At length, however, a |