studied them all, are alike agreed upon this particular question. However in minor matters they may differ, upon this matter their judgment is uniform. This at least must be res judicata, a question no longer admitting of dispute.

The sources of our information touching the prehistoric beliefs of the Indo-Europeans are sufficiently well known not to need a recapitulation here. The most important which I have made use of in this volume may be roughly divided into four classes. (1) The Vedas, and chiefly the Rig Veda; (2) the Greek literature of mythology, especially the prehistorie poets, Homer and Hesiod; (3) the Icelandic Eddas and Sagas; (4) mediæval legends and epics, together with modern popular tales and traditions, almost all of which preserve some relics of ancient heathenism. In the case of the Vedas I have been obliged to avail myself of translations. Of the Rig Veda there now exist two almost complete translations into German, those of H. Grassmann and Ludwig. The beautiful metrical rendering of H. Grassmann is the one to which I have been most indebted.

C. F. K

LONDON, 1882.

Primitive Beliefs can be studied in a strictly historical fashion-The

aid which Philology brings to this enquiry, both in supplying

facts and in supplying principles of research-Impossibility of

finding agreement as to the definition of Religion-Necessity for

a Definition of Belief-Material character of primitive ideas

demonstrated from the history of language-The transition from

concrete to abstract terms-Relationship between material and

metaphysical or ethical notions which is shown by this change

-This relationship also explains the nature of belief-Which

implies a sense of moral or metaphysical ideas underlying the

physical ones-Definition of belief as the capacity for worship-

Belief and poetic creation-Mr. Herbert Spencer's definition of

religion, how far applicable to belief as here considered-Mr.

Matthew Arnold's definition of religion-Distinction between

religion and mythology

§ 2. Early Phases of Belief.

The phases of thought shown in the growth of language are likewise
traceable in the growth of belief-Various senses in which the
words 'fetich' and 'fetichism' have been used-Fetichism under-
stood as a form of magic does not describe a definite phase of
belief-For it may coexist with many different phases-Fetichism
understood as a worship of individual and concrete inanimate

1

objects does constitute a definite phase of belief-The next dis-

tinct phase is Nature Worship, which is the worship of external

phenomena, as the sky, the earth, the sea, the storm, &c.-The

decisive evidences of nature worship which are furnished by

comparative philology-Method of comparative philology in gain-

ing a knowledge of prehistoric times-Instanced in the words go

(cow), duhitar (daughter)—Dyâus the sky god of the proto-Aryas

-Nature worship the cause of henotheism, and an explanation.

of polytheism-Change to a personal god-Zeus and theos-Our

enquiries stop short before the full development of the personal

god-Influence of the passions and of strong emotion on belief.

CHAPTER II.

THE EARLY GROWTH OF BELIEF.

Abundant traces of a primitive fetichism in the Aryan creeds-The

three chief fetiches were trees, rivers, and mountains - The

house tree-Odysseus' chamber-The roof tree of the Norsemen

-From the house tree to the world tree-Yggdrasill-Tanema-

huta of the Maoris-Sacredness of birds-Prophetic power of

birds-Wise women who change themselves into birds-Winged

animals, how they arose-Prophetic power which remains with the

fetich after it has ceased to be a god-With trees-With moun-

tains and with rivers-The tree ancestor-Greek and Persian

houses descended from trees-Ask and Embla (Ash and Elm)

the universal parents in the Edda-Mediæval legend touching

the Tree of Life-From the tree ancestor comes the tree of the

tribe or the village tree, so well known to the German races— -The

patrician and plebeian trees in Rome-Passage of the soul into

a tree-Philemon and Baucis, Myrrha, &c.-Mountain gods-

River gods-Oceanus compared to Yggdrasill-Fetichism gave

the first impulse to a love of country-Animal worship-Serpent

worship-Its connection with worship of rivers-Symbolical ser-

pents-Jörmungandr-The Python-Worship of stocks and

stones a relic of fetichism-Worship of unshapen agalmata in

Greece-Sculptured trees-Influence of fetich worship on the

beginnings of art-Survivals of fetichism-Vitality of the belief

in magic-Transition from fetich worship to nature worship-

The intermediate stage-The dryads, nymphs, fauns, apsaras,

centaurs, &c.-Music born of streams-The contest between the

newer and the older gods.

. 53

Agni's birth-He devours his parents-Significance of this incident

as showing the religious condition of the Vedic worshipper-

The idealisation to which Agni attains-Other nature gods are

more dependent upon climatic influences-It is necessary, there-

fore, to enquire to what climatic influences the ancestors of the

Indo-European races were exposed-The cradle of the Aryan

race in Bactria-Nature of that land-Contrasted with Egypt and

Chaldea-The village community-Diversities of creed-Migra-

tions of the Aryas-Fetich gods had to be left behind-The

Vedas-Religious rather than mythological-The pre-Vedic

creed of Eastern Aryas-Dyâus, Prithivi-Active and passive

gods-Rivalry between Dyâus and Indra, and between Varuna

and Indra-Hymn to Indra and Varuna-The god of the lower

heaven and the god of the upper heaven-Indra as a supreme

god-His might-His combats-Ahi, Vritra, and Sambara—

Relationship of Agni to Indra-Traces of fire worship in other

Indo-European creeds-Agni as a hero-Prometheus-How the

nature gods lose their distinct individualities-Mitra and Varuna

-Originally personified the day and night skies-Then the

meeting of day and night, the horizons at morning and evening—

Hymn to Varuna and Mitra-Hymn to Mitra alone-The Asvin

-The mythic day: the white dawn, the red dawn (Ushas)—

Hymn to Ushas-The sun (Surya)—Hymn to Surya—The storm

winds (the Maruts)-Hymn to the Maruts-Meeting of Indra

and the Maruts-The midday battle-Sunset-Hymn to Savitar

as the setting sun

PAGE

98

CHAPTER IV.

ZEUS, APOLLO, ATHÊNÊ.

Complexity of Greek belief-Necessity of comparing it with the

Vedic and Teutonic creeds-Lack of individuality of Greek gods

in the historic age-Zeus, Apollo, and Athênê stand out from

among the rest-Relics of nature origin shown in their charac-

ters The Zeus of Pheidias-The migration of the European

nationalities-The Yavanas-The Ionians-The two routes taken

by those who came to form the Greek nationality-The Ionians

crossed the Ægæan-The Pelasgians went round by the Helles-

a

pont-The oldest Greek divinities-Zeus as the storm-The
Pelasgic Zeus-Combat with a still older fetich worship-The
gods and the Titans-The wives of Zeus-Nearly all originally
earth goddesses-Hêra distinct from the others-Poseidon and
Hadês-Plûtôn divinities of the older pantheon-So also Arês
and Hêraclês, who were sun gods.

Worship of Apollo and Athênê softened the natures of the
other Greek gods-The Dorians-Spread of their influence-The
birth of Apollo-Apollo at Delphi-His fight with the Python-
His wanderings-His relationship to Hêraclês-Death of the
sun god-Of Heraclês-Of Apollo, implied in one myth-The
narrowing of hell-Apollo and Zeus.

Goddesses born of water-Aphroditê, Athênê Tritogeneia

-Earth and cloud goddesses-Athênê's virgin nature as Pallas,

Parthenos-Shows her essential identity with Artemis-Athênê's

second birth-Hymn to Athênê-Athênê Polias-Polybûlos-

Polymêtis-Athênê and the Gorgon-Athênê in the Iliad-In the

Odyssey-Apollo and Athênê the mediators-Zeus the highest

Greek ideal of God

PAGE

155

CHAPTER V.

MYSTERIES.

Position of the earth divinities in every creed-These are always

honoured by rustic dances and processions-Antiquity of Greek

mysteries-Universality of mysteries-Their original intention

was to celebrate the return of spring-The myth of Dêmêtêr and

Persephonê, from the Homeric hymn-Mysteries must have

existed before the use of agriculture Changes which that use

introduced into them-Triptolemus-Peasant festivals — The

Lupercalia-Emotional element in mysteries-The orgy-The

use of music in the Eleusinia--Comparison with a mystic drama

prepared by St. Francis-Original meaning of the wanderings of

Dêmêtêr Image of the earth-goddess dragged from place to

place-The ceremonial of the Eleusinia-Older and newer ele-

ments in it-A processional chaunt-The resurrection of the

seed-Mysteries became associated with thoughts about the

other world-The decay of the Homeric religion-Growth of

the hope of immortality-Aristophanes' picture of the under-

world — Growing moral sense Neoplatonism-Worship of

Serapis and Isis in Greece-In Rome-Romans adopted mysteries

of Serapis and Isis-Plutarch's version of the story of Osiris and

Isis-His explanation of it-Last stage of the mysteries

-

214

.