in the House of Lords (the 8th of March, 1808), on moving the Resolutions against the Legality of the Orders in Council. 1808. iv, 91 p.

380. Brougham, Henry, The Speech of Henry Brougham, Esq., before the House of Commons, Friday, April 1, 1808, in support of the petitions from London, Liverpool and Manchester, against the Orders in Council. Taken in short-hand by Mr. Fraser. 1808. ix, 84 p. Trade will be seriously injured and prosperity destroyed if the commerce of America, the only neutral state, is checked by the enforcing of the Orders in Council.

381. Spence, William, Britain independent of Commerce; or, Proofs, deduced from an Investigation into the true Causes of the Wealth of Nations, that our Riches, Prosperity, and Power, are derived from Sources inherent in Ourselves, and would not be affected, even though our Commerce were annihilated. 1807. 85 p. 3d ed., 1808. 96 p. 6 ed., 1808. The author was prominent as the leading agrarian Socialist. "Agriculture is the great source of national wealth, manufactures merely a transmutation of wealth of one description, into that of another." p. 20. He speaks of the "fallacy of the doctrine of the balance of trade," p. 49 saying "we derive no national wealth whatever, from our commerce." p. 59. "The author of these pages has long been satisfied, that the importance of our commerce has been greatly overrated; he has long indeed been convinced, that the wealth we derive from it is nothing; that the utility of by far the greater part of it, is to be resolved into its power of procuring for us certain luxuries, which we could do very well without, and in exchange for which we give much more valuable necessaries; and consequently, that our riches, our greatness, and our happiness are independent of it." p. 10.

382. Mill, James, Commerce Defended: an Answer to the Arguments by which Mr. Spence, Mr. Cobbett, and others have attempted to prove that Commerce is not a source of National Wealth. 1808.

383. Spence, William, Agriculture the Source of the Wealth

of Britain; a reply to the objections urged by Mr. Mill, against the doctrines of the pamphlet, entitled "Britain Independent of Commerce." 1808. 110 p.

384. Torrens, Robert, The Economists Refuted; or, An inquiry into the nature and extent of the advantages derived from trade. 1808. 84 p. The title of the second edition has added "with observations on the expediency of making peace with France, and an appendix, discussing the policy of prohibiting corn in the distilleries." 1808. 108 p. Refutes Spence. Examines the advantages derived from home, colonial, and foreign trade. Deprecates too great dependence upon foreign trade.

385. D'Ivernois, Sir Francis, Effects of the Continental Blockade upon the Commerce and Prosperity of the British Islands. Translated from the third French edition, revised, corrected and enlarged. To which are added, Observations on certain statements contained in "A View of the Natural and Commercial Circumstances of Ireland," by Thomas Newenham, Esq.

1810. 152, xxiii p. Declares that British commerce has increased in spite of the Berlin and Milan Decrees.

386. Chalmers, George, Considerations on Commerce, Bullion and Coin, Circulation and Exchanges, with a view of our present circumstances, 1811. 4, 238 p. 2 tables. The title of the third edition adds, "Third edition to which is prefixed, the State of the United Kingdom, at the Peace of Paris, 1815. With Sir George Shuckburgh-Evelyn's Table of the Depreciation of Money and Prices of Necessaries of Life for 800 years." 2 parts. 1819-6.

387. Considerations on the Danger and Impolicy of laying open the Trade with India and China; including an examination of the objections commonly urged against the East India Com

pany's commercial and financial management. 1812. 218 p.

Defends company's monopoly and management.

388. Correspondence and Proceedings in the Negociation for a Renewal of the East India Company's Charter. 1812. 92 p. Documents.

389. Phillimore, Joseph, Reflections on the Nature and Extent of the License Trade. 3d ed., 1812. xx, ii, 96 p. The orders in Council were a great mistake, but, once determined upon, they should at least have been enforced. The licenses issued to foreigners to disregard them work harm to Great Britain without corresponding advantage, and should at once be withdrawn. The author was Regius Professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford.

390. Phillimore, Joseph, A Letter addressed to a member of the House of Commons, on the subject of the notice given by Mr. Brougham, for a motion respecting the orders in council and the license trade. 1812. 2nd ed., 67 p.

391. Considerations on Colonial Policy, with relation to the renewal of the East India Company's charter. By an impartial observer. 1813. 2d. ed., 1813.

392. Robertson, Alexander, Reflexions on the present difficulties of the country, and on relieving them, by opening new markets to our commerce, and removing all injurious restrictions. By an old Asiatic merchant. 1820. iv. 100 p. Considers probable Continental competition, possible new markets in the East, advocates abolition of the East India Company's monopoly of the China trade.

393. Heathfield, Richard, Observations on Trade, considered in reference, particularly, to the public debt, and to the agriculture of the United Kingdom. 1822. 72 p. Effects on trade of American independence, the abolition of the slave trade, the high price of food-stuffs. The last is a serious handicap to commerce. Since it is due to the necessity of paying interest on the large public debt, liquidation of the debt is essential to prosperity.

394. Dupin, François Pierre Charles, baron. Du commerce et de ses travaux publics, en Angleterre et en France, discours, prononcé le 2 juin 1823, dans le séance publique de l'Académie des Sciences. Paris, 1823. 40 p. A general study by an observant Frenchman of the causes which have led to British prosperity and leadership in commerce.

395. Hibbert, N., Report of the select committee on foreign trade; with an abstract of the case of the West India Dock Company, as stated in evidence. 1823. viii, IOI p. Quotes the report and gives an abstract of the evidence with few comments of his own. The West India Docks had a monopoly of the reception of goods from the West Indies. The commission was appointed to consider the advisability of the renewal of the privilege.

§ 3. THE NAVIGATION LAWS

The development of Britain's shipping was the object of the Navigation Laws. From very early times, restrictions of this character had existed, but the rivalry of the Dutch was the direct cause of the most stringent and famous of the Navigation Acts, that of 1651, reenacted 1660. The provisions of these laws are easy of access, their principle was the restriction of the carrying trade to Great Britain or the country which produced the article imported. Not only must British ships be employed, but three fourths of the seamen in ocean traffic and all of the crew in coasting vessels must be British.

The Navigation Acts survived the shock of the loss of the American colonies, for which they were so largely responsible. But in the early nineteenth century, especially after the close of the long warfare, other countries threatened similar restrictions on British ships to those which their own suffered from England. Consequently a step in relaxation was taken, and acts passed in 1823 and 1828 permitted mutual agreements on a reciprocity basis.

No further definite action was taken until the period of the general free trade agitation centering about the struggle for the repeal of the Corn Laws. Then Ricardo wrote in protest against the Navigation Laws, and at his suggestion a Parliamentary Commission was appointed to inquire into and report upon the question. The inevitable output of pamphlets on both sides followed, but the repeal was carried in 1849.

Refer to sections on Colonies, Shipping.

396. Reeves, John, A History of the Law of Shipping and Navigation. 1792.

397. Holroyd, John Baker, Earl of Sheffield, Strictures on the Necessity of inviolably maintaining the Navigation and Colonial System of Great Britain. 1804. New edition, enlarged, 1806. xxiii, 318 p.