by the decision of a papal Synod held in 1812; a few students are sent to the College of the Propaganda. Western theology reaches them through Arabic translations printed at Jerusalem. The number of the Patriarch's subjects is estimated at 114,000, the number of priests at 330; these need not put away wives on ordination, but practically are usually monks. Nineteen monasteries and three convents follow the rule of St. Basil. Liturgy -the Greek rite, differing in no essential from Rome. Fasts-till evening, Lent, the Fast of the Apostles, from Monday after Trinity till SS. Peter and Paul, the fourteen days preceding the Assumption of the B.V.M. (August 1-14), fourteen days before Christmas; these are called the Four Lents.

In

MEMENTO.-A technical term in use in the Roman Church for the remembrance of the living or the dead made in the Mass. The word, meaning "Remember," is the first word of a Latin prayer in the Canon of the Mass. MENTAL RESERVATION.-See MORAL THEOLOGY, JESUITS. MERIT.-See GRACE. METHODISM.-See WESLEYAN METHODISM. METROPOLITAN.-A Metropolitan, who is always a bishop, but generally an archbishop, is the bishop who presides over the churches of the principal city of the province. England there are two Metropolitans, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. By law they have certain jurisdiction over the bishops of their province, and power to suspend and deprive them for proper causes (see Ex parte Read, 13 P.D. 221 [decision of the Privy Council], Read v. Bishop of Lincoln, 14 P.D. 88; Bishop of St. David's Case, 1 Lord Raym. 447). For this reason bishops take an oath of due obedience to the archbishop of their province, the form of which is contained in the Ordinal for the consecration of bishops. This jurisdiction is recognised by the 33rd, 35th, and 36th Canons. The archbishops can also hear appeals from refusals of licences to curates (Reg. v. Archbishop of Canterbury, 1 El. & El. 545), refusals of licence for nonresidence, and a number of other matters. The archbishop of each province calls Convocation together on receipt of the royal writ.

Colonial archbishops have, as such, no ecclesiastical jurisdiction over their suffragan bishops, unless such jurisdiction is given them by law. The Crown, by letters patent, can give no such authority, for it is a settled constitutional principle that though the Crown may establish new courts to proceed according to the

common law, it cannot create a new Court with a new jurisdiction without an Act of Parliament. Pastoral or spiritual authority may be incidental to the office of a bishop, but all jurisdiction in the Church, where it can be lawfully conferred, must proceed from the Crown, and be exercised as the law directs; and suspension or privation of office is a matter of coercive legal jurisdiction, and not of mere spiritual authority. (In re the Lord Bishop of Natal, 3 Moore P.C.N.S.). Therefore, when a bishopric is created, either in England or in a Crown colony, an Act must be passed in order to fix his legal jurisdiction and status. In a self-governing colony such an Act would have to be passed by the Colonial legislature.

[E. B. W.] MICHAEL THE ARCHANGEL. - The phrase "Michael the archanel" occurs only in Jude 9. The word "archangel" without the article occurs elsewhere in one other passage (1 Thess. iv. 16), and is never used in the Septuagint. Michael, as Hengstenberg and many theologians maintain, is best explained as a personification of Christ. That view, however, has been strongly opposed, and is supposed by some to be contrary to Rev. xii. 7-9. Michael is described as "the great prince of Israel" in Dan. x. 21; xii. 1, and termed "one of the chief princes" (Dan. x. 13). But those passages are not opposed to the idea that "Michael your prince" is the same as Messiah the leader of Israel, "the prince of princes" (Dan. viii. 25). Messiah and Michael are in Daniel never mentioned together. Michael assumes the place and discharges the work of Messiah, and therefore may be an angelic personification of Him. His people are also Messiah's people. The interceding angel (Zech. i. 12) who stood up for Israel is identified by Zechariah with Jehovah (Zech. iii. 1, 2), as was the captain of the army of Israel who manifested himself to Joshua (Josh. v. 13-15), and as his superior commander, gave Joshua directions how to take Jericho (Josh. vi. 2 ff.). In the allegory of Rev. xii., Messiah is represented as an infant just born. It would, therefore, have been incongruous to represent the babe as growing up in a moment, and leading on the army of heaven in conflict. Hence a new personification had to be employed, and Michael is brought on the scene as the leader of the army of angels (Rev. xii. 7), which angels are explained in the same passages as in reality men (see Rev. xii. 11). The war of Michael and the dragon in Rev. xii. is identical with the struggle of Michael in Dan. xii. See our Biblical Essays (on "The Key to the Apocalypse"), and on the passage in Jude 9, the Bampton Lectures on Zechariah, pp. 53–60.

[C. H. H. W.]

MINISTER.-The idea underlying this word seems to be that of personal service, especially of an official kind in the public worship of God, in which it corresponds most nearly to the Greek Maroupyós (leitourgos). See Trench's New Testament Synonyms. Before the Reformation it had come to be the designation of the servers at mass, as is seen in the York and Hereford missals. At the Reformation, the title "minister" came to designate the Reformed clergy as distinguished from the mass-priests. Thus the Marian Convocation denounced "the schismatical book called 'the Communion book,' and the book of the ordering of ecclesiastical ministers" (i.e. the Prayer Book and Ordinal), both of which they ordered to be burned (Cardwell, Synodalia, ii. 434). Bishop Christopherson, preaching before Mary on July 24, 1554, said, "Then was the holy order of priesthood utterly disannulled, so that the name of priest should no longer be used, but such as should preach and minister the sacraments should be called ministers." Archbishop Parker expressed this by saying, “Minister ecclesiæ non est sacerdos sacrificans, nec umbra Christi: uti potest ritibus non mysticè significantibus, sed suo ministerio aptis" (Strype's Parker, i. 335). In this generic sense the word "minister" included all the three orders, as in the Reformatio Legum (De Sacramentis, c. 6) we read, "Ministers of the Church -such as be [quales sunt] deacons, presbyters, and bishops." As if to emphasize the contrast between the " sacrificer" and the Protestant clergyman, the word "minister " monly used for the priest as distinguished from the deacon, as in the Act of 13 Eliz. c. 12, sec. 5, and in Canons 31, 32, 76, forbidding any one to be "made deacon and minister in one day," &c. In the suit of Read v. Bishop King it was held that a bishop is a minister within the meaning of the Act of Uniformity, and, as such, is bound by the rubrics like any other minister. [J. T. T.] MINISTRY, THE.-The rise and development of the Christian ministry was, without doubt, gradual. Although the Roman Church includes "Orders" among her seven sacraments, no mention of any express appointment by Christ of any of the three orders of the ministry is found in the New Testament. The Preface to the Ordinal of the Church of England says, "It is evident unto all men, diligently reading the Holy Scripture and ancient authors, that from the apostles' time there have been these Orders of Ministers in Christ's Church, bishops, priests, and deacons." In proof of this we find: (1) Our Lord before His Ascension gave His apostles

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general commission to carry on His work (John xx. 21). (2) When the apostles proved

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unable to cope with all the work of the increasing Church, seven men of honest report" were appointed to relieve the Twelve of secular duties (Acts vi. 2-6), which gradually led to the appointment of an Order of Deacons (see DEACONS). (3) A settled ministry, probably similar to that of Jerusalem, was established at Lystra, Derbe, Antioch, and Iconium. Paul and Barnabas "ordained them elders in every church" (Acts xiv. 23). Amongst those elders, or presbyters, was Timothy (see 1 Tim. iv. 14; 2 Tim. i. 6). (4) A considerable number of offices existed in the Church in apostolic times. In 1 Cor. xii. 28, St. Paul mentions no less than eight classes of ministerial helpers, while in Eph. iv. 11, four or five are mentioned. (5) Elders or presbyters are called "overseers" or "bishops" (Acts xx. 17, 28; Titus i. 5, 7). This is implied also in Phil. i. 1, where "bishops and deacons " are spoken of. The same classification is observable in two documents of the second century, viz. Clement's letter to the Corinthians (§ 42), and the Didaché or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (§ 15). (6) Indications exist, even in the New Testament, of something like the establishment of the episcopate by the apostles. St. Paul devolved upon Titus and Timothy certain functions which had been discharged by the apostles. "For this cause," St. Paul writes to Titus, "left I thee in Crete, that thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting, and ordain elders in every city, as I had appointed thee" (Titus i. 5). Such delegation of authority has often occurred in all mission work, even that of the Presbyterian and Congregationalist Churches.

The date of the first mention of the Orders of the Ministry in Church History occurs in the Didaché, A.D. 120. In the letters of Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, and martyr, the three Orders are fully recognised.

Such appears to have been the origin and development of the ministry. There is not a trace in the New Testament of its sacerdotal character. The Epistle to the Hebrews, which of all the writings of the New Testament deals most fully with the subject of priests and the priesthood, is to show that the sacrificial priesthood of Judaism is for ever abolished.

The word for sacrificing priest (lepeús) is the one descriptive title which is never given to the Christian ministers or presbyters, although some ten other names are made use of, such as apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, teachers, ministers, overseers, presbyters, deacons, and stewards. The word for sacrificing priests is used in the New Testament, but, when not used for Jewish priests, is applied to all Christians. St. Peter twice calls Christians as a whole " a [sacrificial] priest

The word "priest" occurs in the Prayer Book of the Church of England, but always used to signify "presbyter" (elder), and not in any other sense. Romanists, however, argue that since St. Paul uses the word "ministering the Gospel of God" (iepoupуoûvтa), which is sometimes used for "ministering in sacrifice," the apostle must have been a priest." The sacrifice, however, there spoken of was "the offering up of the Gentiles," that is, a symbolical offering up of the Gentiles converted to God, and, therefore, the passage does not help the Roman argument.

The minister of Christ may have many duties to perform, such as the leading of the worship of God, the administration of the sacraments, the instruction of the young, the pastoral care of the sick and the dying, &c., but his most important duty is the public preaching of the Word, for the conversion of sinners and the building up of believers "in their most holy faith." The Lord Jesus in His own ministry was beyond and above all else a preacher, and the same is true with regard to His apostles and disciples. The last command which they received from their Master before His Ascension was to preach the Gospel to every creature (Mark xvi. 15). St. Paul exhorted Timothy to "preach the Word" (2 Tim. iv. 2). Preaching is the first thing which the Church of England commissions her ministers to do. The bishop says to every priest at his ordination, "Take thou authority to preach the Word of God." In comparison with preaching, sacraments are seldom referred to in the New Testament. St. Paul's Pastoral Epistles to Timothy and Titus do not contain a word on that subject. [M. E. W. J.] MINORITES.-See FRANCISCANS. MIRACLES.-There are three words used by the New Testament writers for miracles, viz. (1) "powers" (duváμeis), which draws attention to the mighty influence sufficient to effect them, the omnipotence of God; (2) "prodigies," "portents," or wonders" (répara), which indicates the strange nature of the phenomena; and (3) "signs" (onμcîa), used by St. John, which implies that God, by means of the miracle, attests the mission and doctrine of those who teach in His name. The miracles

of the Old Testament were evidential of the Theocratic Government, those of the New Testament were evidential both of the true origin of Christ, and of the existence of the New Dispensation inaugurated by Christ and maintained by His apostles and disciples. Miraculous gifts were generally conferred by the laying on of the apostles' hands. Miracles did not long continue in the Church after the apostolic times. The Roman Church maintains, however, that ecclesiastical miracles have been continued. The passage generally appealed to in support of that contention is Mark xvi. 17, 18. But the words that follow ought to be noticed: "And they went forth and preached everywhere, the Lord work. ing with them, and confirming the word with the accompanying signs." Romanists assert, "Miracles are as possible now as they were eighteen centuries ago." The question, however, is not as to the possibility of miracles, but as to whether God has seen fit to continue them in the economy of the Gospel Kingdom since apostolic times. Romanists argue that miracles may be continued because heathen nations have yet to be converted. Roman miracles are always wrought amongst enthusiastic believers, and so far as they affect others, tend to produce more unbelief than faith. Heathen have been, however, converted by the instrumentality of Protestant missions without the assistance of miracles. The so-called "ecclesiastical miracles" are adduced to support not so much Bible truth as papal corruptions. In the time of Gregory the Great, when the Pope first began to be installed, stories of miracles of all kinds were multiplied, and since then the stories have been circulated in support of the worship of relics and images, invocation of the saints, prayers for the dead, purgatory, &c. "Ecclesiastical miracles" closely resemble in character legendary tales, e.g. articles which touched the stole of St. Hubert are said to have preserved from insanity and hydrophobia (Bertrand, Pélerinage de St. Hudert en Ardennes, pp. 195-198). Students who had dipped their pens in the fountain at Lourdes, all passed a competitive examination, and several vith honours (Miracles de N. D. de Lourdes, p. 85). The cases of illness alleged to have been cured by means of the water of Lourdes have been chiefly ailments of a nervous or hysterical character, or such as might have been produced by natural causes. Apparent miraculous performances are one of the marks of the Apocalyptic Beast (Rev. xiii. 14'; xvi. 14), and our Lord Himself uttered a distinct walning against looking for miracles (Matt. xvi. John iv. 48), and against the pretended assunption of miraculous power (Matt. xxiv. 24).

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MISSA AND MISSÆ.-An attempt has been made to try to make out that the XXXIst Article of the Church of England does not condemn the doctrine of the mass as formally adopted in the Council of Trent, but only some private doctrines of individual Romish theologians. In defence of that view, attention has been drawn to the expression in the plural "the Sacrifices of Masses" (not "the Sacrifice of the Mass") used in Article XXXI. It is important, therefore, to observe that in the Canons of the Council of Trent missa (singular) and missæ (plural) are used almost in the same sense. See session xxii. cap. ii. canons v. and vii. Moreover, in the Vindication of the Bull Apostolica Cura, a letter on Anglican Orders, by the Cardinal Archbishop and Bishops of the Province of Westminster (Longmans, 1898), we read:

"Article XXXI. pronounces on the Mass. It first describes it by a definition which every Catholic would accept, 'the Sacrifices of Masses, in the which it was commonly said, that the priest did offer Christ for the quick and the dead,' and then denounces it-it, so described as incompatible with the offering of Christ once made on the cross. And Article XXXV. calls the doctrine of the Homilies 'godly and wholesome,' whereas Homily XV. of Book II. bids us to take heed lest of the memory the Lord's Supper be made a sacrifice,' and says, 4 we need no sacrificing priest, no

Newman's argument in the XCth Tract for the Times was afterwards withdrawn by him. It was, however, derived by Newman from Sancta Clara's exposition put forth in 1646, in which, for obvious reasons, that Romish divine (Dr. Christopher Davenant) strove to show that the XXXIX. Articles were not absolutely condemnatory of the Church of Rome. On this question Dimock's book "Missarum Sacrificia. Testimonies of English Divines in Respect of the Claim of the Massing-Priests, to offer Christ for the quick and the dead for remission of sins," London: E. Stock, 1896, may be consulted with advantage.

MISSAL.-The book containing the services of the Mass used by the Romish Church. The term appears to have been first used by Egbert of York, A.D. 732, for the Liber Sacramentorum. In the Middle Ages, the several parts of divine service were arranged in distinct books. Thus the collects and the invariable portion of the Communion Office formed the book called the Sacramentary. The lessons from the Old and New Testaments constituted the Lectionary, and the Gospels made another volume, with the title of Evangelistarium. The Antiphonary consisted of anthems, &c., designed for chanting. About the eleventh or twelfth century it

was found convenient, generally, to unite these books, and the volume obtained the name of the Complete or Plenary Missal, or Book of Missæ, or Masses. Of this description were almost all the liturgical books of the Western Churches. We do not read of the Missalia Plenaria before the ninth century. The Gelasian Sacramentary, as well as the Leonian, resembled the Gregorian in consisting of prayers and prefaces only. The lessons and antiphons were probably distinct books for a century after the time of Alcuin. The later Missal contains the lessons, antiphons, the canon, proper prayers, collects, and prefaces to be used at the administration of Holy Communion throughout the year. The later Missal was simplified and purified by the Reformers of the English Church, after the model of the primitive Church, alike in its Rubrics, ritual directions, and in its Collects, Epistles, and Gospels for the various seasons of the Ecclesiastical year. The more important changes were in the administration of the Lord's Supper in the English language, the adoration, elevation, &c., of "the host" being eliminated, the exclusion of prayers to saints and angels, and prayers for the dead; the observance with Collects, Epistles, and Gospels of the great Festivals and Fasts of the Church, such as the Nativity, Crucifixion, &c., and of the Saints of the New Testament, to the exclusion of all others. [T. H. L. L.].

MISSIONS, GENERAL.—

1. The Purpose of Missions.-It is important not to confuse the purpose of missions with the effects of missions. Missions have done much to promote geographical knowledge, linguistic science, commercial enterprise, social improvement, educational progress, civilisation generally. But these are not the aim and purpose of missions.

Expressed in one word, it is evangelisationthe preaching of the Gospel-the making Christ known to the world.

In one sense it may be said that the aim of missions is the true conversion of every man, woman, and child to Christ. But (1) we must distinguish between evangelisation and conversion. Evangelisation is man's work; conversion is God's work. (2) The true conversion of all mankind is not promised for the present dispensation. Christ's Second Coming is to be to an unconverted world; although, if that Coming is long delayed, it may be to an outwardly Christianised world.

2. The Motive of Missions.-The true motive of missions is loyalty to Christ. Even if there were no express command, every true Christian would desire the extension of Christ's kingdom. But there is an express command, and one which occupies a place in the Gospels

which is unique. No doubt He gave His apostles many instructions during the Forty Days between the Resurrection and the Ascension, but these are not recorded for the benefit of us in later ages. One only is recorded; recorded in different words by the evangelists, words probably spoken on different occasions. In St. Matthew: "Go ye . . . and make disciples of all nations," &c., xxviii. 19, 20.

In St. Mark: "Go ye into all the world, and preach the Gospel to the whole creation," xvi. 15. (The textual question here obviously does not affect the case.)

In St. Luke: "Repentance and remission of sins should be preached in His Name unto all the nations, beginning from Jerusalem," xxiv. 47.

In St. John: "As the Father hath sent Me, even so send I you," xx. 21.

In the Acts: "Ye shall be My witnesses both in Jerusalem, and in all Judæa and Samaria, and unto the uttermost part of the earth," i. 8.

Apparently this last text contains the last words of Christ on earth, for the very next verse says, "And when He had said these things, as they were looking, He was taken up."

And this command is not an arbitrary one, the ground of which is not evident. It is supported by common sense. If it be a fact that a divine Person came into the world to bless mankind, it is obvious that all men ought to know it. This is the plainest common sense; and the whole question is one of fact. Did such an astonishing thing happen? We may leave out all questions of dogmatic theology. We need not ask who this Person really was, or exactly what He did, or what is the blessing He came to give. Let the bare fact be admitted, and the claim, the right, of every living man, woman, and child to be told of such a fact becomes indisputable. And the fact that a man is virtuous, even if it be thought to lessen his need, in no way lessens his claim. Hence we see the point of our Lord's words in Luke xxiv. 46, 47, "That the Christ should suffer, and rise again from the dead the third day, and that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in His name unto all the nations." Three essential things: (1) His Death; (2) His Resurrection; (3) Missions. Which is according to common sense; for what was the good of Christ dying and rising again, if men were not told of it?

3. The Need of Missions.-The duty of missionary enterprise does not rest upon the need of it. It is the solemn duty of the Church prior to all inquiry as to whether heathendom needs Christianity or not. Nevertheless, heathendom does need Christianity. It is urged that the sins and sufferings and miseries

of mankind in heathen lands are sufficiently dealt with by the non-Christian religions. To prove that this is not the case it is not necessary to look at their worst side; nor would it be fair to do so. Let every religion be taken at its best.

(a) As regards sin, it is true that many excellent precepts and exhortations to virtue may be found in the "sacred books" of Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Mohammedanism, &c. Confucius told men to obey their parents; Mohammed told them to abstain from intoxicating drink. But all these systems lack two things. First, they reveal no power by which their good precepts may be obeyed. Secondly, they reveal no remedy in the case of disobedience. But these two things are the very blessings which are the essence of Christianity. Christianity reveals a Saviour for the disobedient, and a Sanctifier who can make them obedient. The Gospel or good tidings which we proclaim to the world is that these two paramount needs are supplied.

(b) As regards suffering, the utmost that can be said for non-Christian religions is that Buddhism and Mohammedanism direct almsgiving. It is Christendom alone that has cared for the sick, the aged, the orphan, the imbecile, the insane; that has built hospitals, and infirmaries, and asylums, and orphanages. True, non-Christians have here and there followed this example, but they never set it, nor thought of it. The fruits of Christianity may be imitated, but Christianity alone is the tree that produces them.

So far, every candid man must acknowledge that the non-Christian world needs Christianity. But the Christian goes further. He believes that Christianity is indispensable. He seeks not to pry into "the secret things that belong unto the Lord our God." He condemns no man, least of all the man or woman or child who, owing to the guilty neglect of the Church, has never heard of Christ. But he bows his head before the solemn words of bis divine Master, "No man cometh unto the Father but by Me," and of his Master's foremost disciple, "There is none other Name under heaven given among men whereby we must be saved;" he knows they are true, and on that knowledge he acts.

4. The Methods of Missions.-They may be conveniently grouped in two great divisions, the Evangelistic and the Pastoral; in other words, the work of evangelising the nonChristian peoples and the work of instructing and guiding the converts. These two groups find striking illustration in the concluding chapter of St. John's Gospel, in which we find the work of the Church of Christ pictured (1) as fishing, "Cast the net;" (2) as shepherding, "Feed My sheep."