Origins of the English People and the English Language

Election of Edward to the throne of England-He marries Edith, the
daughter of Godwin and sister of Harold-Re-establishment of the old
English laws-Norman favorites at court-Their arrogant manners arouse
the people's hostility-William, Duke of Normandy-His visit to England
-Honor done him by Edward and his Norman courtiers-His ambitious
projects-Death of Godwin-Harold visits Normandy-He is received at
Rouen with great honor by Duke William-The duke speaks to him of
Edward's promise to make him his heir to the crown of England, and asks
his assistance for the accomplishment of that promise-Harold accedes to
his request, and swears his oath on sacred relics-His return to England-
Uneasiness of Edward on hearing Harold's account of William's reception
-Superstitious terror of the English people-Remembrance of fatal pre-
dictions-Death of King Edward-Election of Harold to the succession-
Exchange of messages between King Harold and Duke William-The dis-
pute referred to the Pope-The latter decides in favor of Duke William-
Rupture of negotiations, and declaration of war-Great military prepara-
tions-Enrollment of men from all parts in William's army-Departure of
the Norman fleet-Landing of the Norman army at Pevensey-The Eng-
lish army moves to meet the enemy-The opposite armies in camp the
night before battle-The battle of Hastings-Victory of the Normans—
Death of Harold-Battle Abbey-The Norman army moves on to London—
Ravages and cruelties committed by the conquering soldiery-William pro-
claimed King of England-Immediate results of the conquest-Confisca-
tion of property-Division of the spoils among the Normans-Seizure
of English domains-Disposal of English heiresses-Great wealth and
high titles bestowed on William's followers-The native population re-
duced to beggary-The whole country covered with Norman citadels and

fortified castles-Fearful sufferings of the native English-More than one

hundred thousand die from hunger and disease-Some of the survivors,

once illustrious among their countrymen, sell themselves and their families

into perpetual slavery to escape starvation-Others emigrate to the north

and south of Europe, or take to the forests and the mountains-Cruel pun-

ishment of English partisans and political outlaws-Great influx of French

adventurers into England-Introduction of foreign prelates into English

bishoprics-Contemptuous treatment of the natives by the foreign clergy—

Threatened insurrection of the English-Shrewd concessions of William--

He revives the laws of Edward-Futility of the concessions-Treacherous

applications of the law-Norman greed and spoliation-Towns and vil-

lages farmed out to the highest bidders-Final disposal of all landed prop-

erty-The domesday-book-General aspect of the conquered country-

Various conquests compared-Nature of the Norman conquest-William's

advantage in the enterprise-English opinions as regards the justice of his

claim-His original plans of occupation modified by circumstances-

Eventual results of the conquest-Development of the national resources

-Establishment of schools and institutions of learning-Rich endowments

for their maintenance-Establishment of abbeys and monasteries-Nor-

man activity in the cause of education-Erection of magnificent edifices-

Old churches demolished and restored on a grander scale-Improved taste

in art and in works of permanent utility-Agriculture-Commerce-Tyran-

nical enforcement of the law..

PAGE

214

CHAPTER VII.

GROWTH AND DECLINE OF THE NORMAN FRENCH IN ENGLAND.

The distinction of race between Normans and English kept up by the

difference of language long after the assimilation of social and political in-
terests-The teachers for a long time are nearly all French clergymen—
French and Latin are the only languages taught-Neglect of the native
English idiom-Wealth, power, and higher intellect in England remain
French for many generations-The working classes are among the first to
pick up some words of French-Shopkeepers and tradesmen find it to their
interest to know some French to secure Norman custom―The larger cities
soon become bilingual-The most eminent French poets and minstrels re-
pair to England-Anglo-Norman compositions take the lead in French
literature-They impart a greater uniformity to the French as spoken in
England-Its first degeneration owing to an admixture of English words
and to a loss of accent-Both become noticeable in thirteenth century
documents-The wrong accent is followed by the contraction of words
and the omission of certain vowel-sounds - English words applying
to English matters occur in the laws of William-English words be-
come very numerous in the statutes at large-Statute of Edward III
making English the national language-Is drawn up in French, and so

PAGK

all statutes continue to be during the reign of Edward III and Richard

II-Their letters and dispatches are all in French-Oxford students con-

fined in conversation to either French or Latin-The first great cause of

the decline of Anglo-Norman French to be found in the separation of Nor-

mandy from England-The emigration of French literary men and poets

becomes less easy and less frequent-Anglo-Norman poets lose their for-

mer grace and facility—Native poets begin to write French poetry-Some

translate imported French literature-Others compose in their vernacular

English-French and English compositions of the time compared-The

study of English introduced into the schools-The increased currency of

English sensibly affects the Norman-French-Its decline is for a time re-

tarded by the presence in England of Charles of Orléans and the nobles

and poets in their suite who were made prisoners at Azincourt-The use

of French becomes more and more confined to the court and the aristocra-

cy-It remains the official language in the high courts of Parliament-Civil

cases continue to be tried in English, and recorded in French-Lawyers'

French-Anglo-Norman French in Chaucer's time-English gradually

takes its place-In the first half of the fifteenth century public acts begin

to be drawn up indifferently in English or in French-The first English

bill in the lower house of Parliament bears date A. D. 1485-The last pub-

lic document in French bears date A. D. 1488-Letters, wills, epitaphs,

law reports, etc., are found written in French up to A. D. 1600-The

fashionable use of French begins to be more a French fashion than a

Norman tradition-Henry VIII, the last English king who proclaimed

French the court language and required a knowledge thereof in all persons

applying for office-The first French grammar written under his auspices

by Palsgrave, and published in London, A. D. 1530-The first French dic-

tionary published also in England by Cotgrave, A. D. 1611-The royal

assent to acts of Parliament is still given in French....

252

CHAPTER VIII.

SPECIMENS OF ANGLO-NORMAN FRENCH.

Remarks on the reading of Anglo-Norman manuscripts-A knowledge
of modern French insufficient for a correct understanding of Anglo-Nor-
man French-The Lord's Prayer, from the psalter of William the Conqueror
-Laws of William the Conqueror-Henry I, Urbanus ou l'home poly-Ge-
offroi Gaimar, Histoire des Rois Anglo-Normands-Robert Wace, Roman de
Rou-Benoît de Sainte-More, Histoire des ducs de Normandie-Evrard,
Distiques de Caton-Guillaume Herman, La Création-Guichard de Beau-
lieu, Nativité du Christ-Richard Coeur de Lion, Servantois-Marie de
France, Fable-Robert Grosse-Teste, Allégorie-Gauter de Bibblesworthe,
Anglo-Norman Grammar-Political Song in French and English, mixed
-Hymn to the Virgin in French and Latin, mixed-Political Song in
French, Latin, and English, mixed-Statute of Edward III authorizing

the use of English in civil suits-John Gower, Ballade-Peter Langtoft,
Histoire des Bretons-Norman Proverbs, etc., still current in English-
Will of a Gentleman at the end of the fourteenth century.

PAGE

269

CHAPTER IX.

FUSION OF ANGLO-NORMAN FRENCH AND ANGLO-SAXON

ENGLISH.

The history of the vernacular English literature almost a blank for a
century and a half after the Norman conquest-French and Latin are the
principal literature of the period-The great mass of early French litera-
ture was published in England-For a time, French threatens to displace
the old vernacular English-It is eventually absorbed by the latter-
Changes in the vernacular English when it re-appears in written form—The
changes involve, I, an infusion of Norman words and idioms, and, 2, a
general disintegration of the older forms of language-Infusion of foreign
words and phrases-Commenced even before the Conquest-After the
Conquest, a knowledge of French is indispensable for the transaction of
public business-William tries to learn English-He does not attempt to
make French the universal language of his subjects-The decline of the
native English is incidental only-Widespread disintegration of the native
English after the generation who had seen the arrival of the Norman had
died out-Words relating to ordinary life subsist; literary terms are for-
gotten-Without schools or cultivated classes it is impossible to keep up a
standard of correct speaking and writing-Neglect of grammatical rules
and admixture of foreign terms appear even in the Anglo-Saxon Chroni-
cle-The English people begin to adopt French Christian names-Eng-
lish family names-Their origin and meaning.

After the loss of Normandy, the blending of families and interests leads
to a blending of idioms-The use of French words in early English trans-
lations shows that such words were then generally understood-The mixed
language begins to be used by the Normans themselves-After the statute
of Edward III, proclaiming English the national language, the influx of
French words and phrases is greater than ever before-Causes of this
increasing admixture of foreign terms-Agencies at work to produce the
fusion of both idioms-Business and fashion-The clergy-The doctors-
The lawyers-The arts of war and chivalry-Fashionable literature-The
growing love for foreign terms and euphemism-The mixture of French
and English words in the sentences extends also to the words themselves
and parts thereof—English roots with French suffixes-French roots with
English suffixes-French verbs with English terminations conjugated after
English fashion-French words thus Anglicized become part and parcel of
the new national language—Some are found even in the earliest English
compositions after the Norman conquest―The land of Cockaigne-Robert
of Gloucester-Adam Davie-The earl of Warwick-Robert of Brunne-

Richard Hampole-William Langland-Wyclif-Chaucer-The language
of Chaucer-Great difference between northern and southern English-
Works written in one of these dialects need translation to be understood
by people speaking the other-The midland counties partake of the peculi-
arities of both-Many anomalies in modern English are owing to this
diversity of speech-Words of Norman origin especially subject to mispro-
nunciation Strange instances thereof-Disguised origin of many words of
Norman importation.

Nature and amount of Norman influence in transforming the ancient

speech of England into modern English-Loss of inflections and neglect

of grammatical rules found in Anglo-Saxon English long before the Nor-

man conquest-Difference between the spoken and the written language

in the seventh and eighth centuries-Great dialectic differences the cause

of grammatical inaccuracy-Intermingling of dialects destructive to inflec-

tions-Laying the accent on or near the initial syllable may be traced to

Danish influence-It causes the concluding syllable to fall into obscurity

-The leveling of the terminal vowels involves the loss of inflections-The

use of prepositions in combination with inflections occurs in Anglo-Saxon

writings-Phonetic changes in English words due far more to Danish than

to Norman influence-Great license of language and of spelling found in

Anglo-Saxon writings - Anomalies of Anglo-Saxon grammar-Changes

which mark the transformation of the old speech of England into modern

oms-Natural tendency of every language to replace inflections by prepo-

sitions-Modern English substantially formed by the end of the fourteenth

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND ITS VOCABULARY.

The English loss of territory on the continent favorable to the improve-
ment of the national language-Introduction of the art of printing-It
produces a greater uniformity of language-The fifteenth century not fa-
vorable to the cultivation of letters in England-The revival of learning
-The French mania for antiquity finds its way also into England-Great
influx of Greek and Latin words-English fondness for new and foreign
terms-Influence of the Renaissance and the Reformation-Theological
controversy carried on in the people's language-French controversial
pamphlets translated into English-They lead to an increased use of
French and Latin terms-Many foreign words thus introduced have not
been retained in the language-The immoderate use of foreign terms dis-
countenanced by leading English authors-New influx of French words
with the Restoration-Most French words of that period relating to art,
criticism, and fashion have been retained-Swift's opposition to the ex-
cessive use of French and Latin words in English-To protect the lan-

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