The repudiation of the Provisions for a time reunited de Montfort and Gloucester. The Royalists suggested that the dispute between King and barons should be submitted to the arbitration of Louis IX. This was accepted by many of the barons, but de Montfort refused to assent and retired to France.

The death of Richard of Gloucester in 1262 weakened the Royalists. The new Earl Gilbert joined de Montfort, who returned from France in 1263. A baronial army swept through England and eventually received a warm welcome in London. Foreigners in England, particularly foreign clergy, were attacked and expelled from the island. Archbishop Boniface sought safety in flight. But once more the triumph of the Nationalists was followed by their disunion. The Sicilian danger passed away in the summer of 1263, when the Pope revoked his grant to Prince Edmund in order that he might give the throne to Charles of Anjou. Before the end of the year Henry and de Montfort agreed to accept the arbitration of Louis IX. Six months later Louis decided in Henry's favour on all the disputed points. This award was immediately followed by civil war. At Lewes in May 1264 the Royalists were defeated, and Henry became de Montfort's prisoner.

Though by birth and marriage de Montfort might have aspired to usurp the Crown, no such disloyal attempt was made. Henry continued to reign, but he had to accept again the Provisions. The Queen escaped to France and raised an army for the invasion of England. A papal legate waited at Boulogne for a chance to enter England and pronounce the excom

munication of the Nationalists. Entering into the growing commercial spirit of the age, the Pope forbade all commerce with England. De Montfort faced the situation with courage. He raised an army to guard the coast. He organised a fleet to sweep the narrow seas. He levied a tax of ten per cent. on the goods of laity and clergy. To those who prophesied England's ruin de Montfort said "that the inhabitants of England could live comfortably of their own without foreign trade"; and patriots wore rough English undyed cloth to show their love for England.

These details are recorded by Thomas Wykes, one of the two contemporary historians who opposed de Montfort's policy. To prove that de Montfort oppressed the people, Wykes says that prices rose, but he only quotes the rise in price of wax, wine, and pepper. These were the luxuries of the rich. When de Montfort and his Franciscan teachers thought of the people of England, their minds instinctively turned to the poor workers, not to the rich merchants and landlords. That the poor could live of their own is proved by the almost idolatrous veneration of de Montfort's memory, which came spontaneously from the English poor when the great earl was killed at Evesham during the so-called period of distress.

The stoppage of trade alienated the merchants and many of the lords; but the Church and the people remained true to England. In January 1265 the first real English Parliament met at Westminster. In this Parliament, practically summoned by an excommunicated earl, there were one hundred and twenty of the higher clergy and only thirty-two barons; but

with the Churchmen there sat two members from each shire and town. Of the thirty-two barons nine were Royalists and these were soon increased by seceders from the ranks of the Nationalists. Gilbert of Gloucester abandoned de Montfort, and London gave but a hesitating support in spite of the efforts of FitzThomas and his friends. Civil war ensued. In August 1265 de Montfort and his followers were welcomed by the monks of Evesham. Next day he was surrounded by Prince Edward's army and realised that all was lost. "By the arm of St. James! they attack wisely; not of themselves but from me have they learned that method; let us commend our souls to God since our bodies are theirs," said the Earl of Leicester when he died for England.

The monks of Evesham buried in their abbey what remained of de Montfort's body after the victors had mutilated a corpse they no longer feared. To the tomb of the excommunicated earl, as to Becket's shrine, the English flocked to be healed of their ills. In spite of Pope and King the English called de Montfort St. Simon the Martyr. At Evesham the vanquished won the victory; since Edward learned more than the art of war from the uncle he defeated. From de Montfort King Edward I. learned to trust his people and rule wisely; and England learned from her great earl to value economic independence and political freedom so dearly that in time she was really able to live of her own. But two centuries had to elapse before the lesson was fully learned.

IX

THE MAGNATES LOSE THEIR DEMOCRATIC SYMPATHIES

1270-1325

THE death of de Montfort wrecked the democratic cause. The property of the insurgent barons was confiscated. London lost her civic rights; and her democratic mayor, FitzThomas, died in prison. The disinherited continued a hopeless fight against Prince Edward, who undertook the task of reducing England to obedience. After a time more moderate counsels prevailed. The barons were allowed to redeem their estates by the payment of heavy fines. Henry left the government in the hands of his son, who proved that he had learned much from de Montfort. In 1270 the work of pacification was so complete that Edward thought it safe to accept the cross from his father and leave England on crusade. Before he left, London was given her old freedom.

England's interest in the crusade was but slight. Charles of Anjou was King of Sicily; to extend French influence in the Mediterranean his brother, Louis IX., sailed for Tunis on his last crusade. Before he joined Louis, Prince Edward learned that the crusade had failed, that Louis was dead, and that his son, Philip III., had made peace with the infidel. Edward then sailed

to Acre, where Christians were fighting to keep their only remaining colony in Syria. Recalled to England in 1272 by alarming accounts of his father's health, Edward, on his return journey, visited Charles of Anjou in Sicily, where he could see for himself that Germany had ceased to be the leading European State. A French king ruled the island which had flourished under Frederic's care; and Frenchmen had taken from Germans the task of alternately protecting and attacking the papacy. Pope Gregory X., Edward's host at Orvieto, could tell his guest that Rome was sanctioning the termination of the imperial interregnum in Germany, hoping that the reconciliation of Pope and Emperor would stimulate the waning interest of Europe in the East and lead to a new crusade. the contrast between the feeble remnant of Christians at Acre and the prosperous burghers of the North Italian cities, who gave the young king a royal reception, must have shown him that the growth of European industry had quenched all zeal for the crusades.

But

That Edward loved the old feudal world which was so rapidly changing is shown by his halting, on the way to Paris, to accept a challenge from the Count of Chalons. The King won great renown by unhorsing his opponent; and then, after paying feudal homage to his suzerain at Paris, he spent some time in settling his complicated feudal relations with his turbulent vassals of Aquitaine. But, even before the King returned to England, he had to give his serious attention to prosaic mercantile disputes which had been affecting Anglo-Flemish trade. In April 1274 Edward made the exportation of English wool a capital offence.