which these ideas are awakened in the mind. The idea of time, e. g., is connected with the succession of events, external or internal things without and thought and feeling within following each other—which succession is matter of observation or of consciousness. The idea of space is connected with the observation or sensation of body as extended. The idea of beauty and deformity is awakened by the perception of external objects as possessing certain qualities which we thus designate. The idea of right and wrong in like manner connects with something observed in human conduct. So of all ideas of this class. They are not disconnected with, nor independent of, the appropriate objects of observation and consciousness. These objects must exist, these occasions must be furnished, as the indispensable condition of the existence of the idea in the mind. Dispense with the succession of events or the observation of it, and you dispense with the idea of time in the human mind.

Conclusion. So far as regards the origin of the ideas in question, it is not easy to draw a dividing line, then, between the two classes, marking the one as external, the other as internal. Both are of external origin, and equally so, in this sense that they both depend, and equally depend, on some previous exercise of sense as the occasion and condition of their development. Both are of internal origin, in another sense that they are both awakened in the mindare both the product of its own activity.

Difference lies in what. — The difference is not so much that of externality or internality of origin, as it is a difference of character. The one relates to objects of sense, which can be seen, heard, felt; the other to matters not less real, not less obvious, but of which sense does not take direct cognizance. In either case they spring from the constitution and laws of the mind. Such is my constitution that external and material objects, affecting my senses, furnish me ideas relating to such objects. And such is my

constitution that certain relations and qualities of things not directly cognizable by sense, and certain realities and facts of an æsthetic and moral nature, likewise impress my mind, and thus awaken in me the idea of such relations and realities. The objects, the relations, the realities, exist, they are perceived by the mind, and thus the first idea of them is obtained. Color exists, and the eye is so constituted as to be able to perceive it, and thus the idea of color is awakened in the mind. So right and wrong exist, and the mind is so constituted as to be able to perceive and recognize their existence, and thus the idea of right is awakened in the mind. The faculty we call perception in the one case, orig. inal conception in the other.

CHAPTER II.

TRUTHS AND CONCEPTIONS FURNISHED BY THIS FACULTY.

§ I.

PRIMARY TRUTHS.

Primary Truths and Primary Ideas as distinguished.-The faculty in question may be regarded as the source of primary beliefs, truths, cognitions, intuitively perceived, aud also of primary and original conceptions, notions, ideas, also intuitively conceived.

The difference between a conception or idea, and a belief or truth, is obvious. The notion of existence, and the knowledge or belief that I, myself, exist, are clearly distinguishable. The idea of cause, and the conviction that every event has a cause, are distinct mental states. The one is a primitive and intuitive conception, the other a primitive and intuitive truth. Every primary truth involves a primitive and original conception.

Existence of first Truths. All science and all reasoning

depend ultimately on certain first truths or principles, not learned by experience, but prior to it, the evidence and certainty of which lie back of all reasoning and all experience. Take away these elementary truths, and neither science nor reasoning are longer possible, for want of a beginning and foundation. Every proposition which carries evidence with it, either contains that evidence in itself, or derives it from some other proposition on which it depends. And the same is true of this other proposition, and so on forever, until we come, at last, to some proposition which depends on no other, but is self-evident, a first truth or principle. Whence come these first principles? Not of course from experience, for they are involved in and essential to all experience. They are native or à priori convictions of the mind, instinc tive and intuitive judgments.

The existence of

Existence of first Truths admitted. first truths or principles, as the basis of all acquired knowledge, has been very generally admitted by philosophers. They have designated these elementary principles, however, by widely different appellations. By some, they have been termed instinctive beliefs, cognitions, judgments, etc., an appellation mentioned by Hamilton as employed by a very great number of writers from Cicero downward, including, among the rest, Scaliger, Bacon, Descartes, Pascal, Leibnitz, Hume, Reid, Stewart, Jacobi. Others, again, have termed them à priori or transcendental principles, cognitions, judg ments, etc., as being prior to experience, and transcending the knowledge derived from sense. So Kant and his school termed them. By the Scotch writers they have been termed, also, principles of common sense, in place of which expression Stewart prefers the title, fundamental laws of human belief. Criteria of primary Truths. It becomes an important inquiry, in what manner we may recognize and distinguish first truths from all others. Besides common consent, or universality of belief on the part of those who have arrived at years of discretion, Buffier relies, also, upon the following,

as criteria of first principles; that they are such truths as can neither be defended nor attacked by any propositions, either more manifest or more certain than themselves; and that their practical influence extends even to those who would deny them. Reid gives, among other criteria, the following: consent of ages and nations; the absurdity of the opposite; early appearance in the mind, prior to educa tion and reasoning; practical necessity to the conduct and concerns of life. Hamilton gives the following as tests or criteria of first truths: 1. Incomprehensibilty.-We comprehend that the thing is, but not how or why it is. 2. Simplicity. If the cognition or belief can be resolved into several cognitions or beliefs, it is complex, and so, no longer original. 3. Necessity, and consequent universality.—If necessary, it is universal, and if absolutely universal, then it must be necessary. 4. Comparative evidence and certainty.

- Summary of Criteria. - The following may be regarded as a summary of the more important criteria by which to distinguish primary truths from all others.

a. As first truths, or primary data of intellegence, they are, of course, not derived from observation or experience, but are prior and necessary to such experience.

b. They are simple truths, not resolvable into some prior and comprehending truth from which they may be deduced.

c. As simple truths, they do not admit of proof, there being nothing more certain which can be brought in evidence of them.

d. While they do not admit of proof, the denial of them involves us in absurdity.

e. Accordingly, as simple, and as self-evident, they are universally admitted.

Enumeration of some of the Truths usually regarded as primary. - Different writers have included some more, some fewer, of these first principles in their list; while nc

one has professed, so far as I am aware, to give a complete enumeration of them. Such an enumeration, if it were possible, would be of great service in philosophy. The following have been generally included among primary truths by those who have attempted any specification, viz. ;(our perBonal existence, our personal identity, the existence of efficient causes, the existence of the material world, the uniformity of nature; to which would be added, by others, the relia bility of memory, and of our natural faculties generally, and personal freedom or power over our own actions and volitions.

Correctness of this Enumeration. That the truths now specified are in some sense primary, that they are generally admitted and acted upon, among men, without process of reasoning, and that, when stated, they command the universal and instant assent of even the untaught and unreflecting mind, there can be little doubt. Whether, in all cases, how ever, they come strictly under the rules and criteria now given; whether, for example, our own existence and identity are primary data of consciousness; or whether, on the con trary, they are not inferred from the existence of those thoughts and feelings of which we are directly conscious, as, for example, in the famous argument of Descartes, Cogito. ergo sum, may admit of question.

Of the results or operations of the faculty under consider ation, we have considered, as yet, only that class which may be designated as primary truths, in distinction from primitive or intuitive conceptions. To this latter class let us now

direct our attention.

Proposed consideration of some of the more important.Without undertaking to give a complete list of our original or intuitive conceptions, there are certain of the more important, which seem to require specific consideration. Such