ment when Mercury passed the meridian. During the evening observation, the horn was so gradually blunted that Mr. Schröter had opportunity to be an eye-witness of the successive exposition of the high mountains in the southern hemisphere of Mercury to the sun. Our greatest degree of cold was in the night, between the twenty-ninth and the thirtieth of December, being at that time 9° below 0 of Fahrenheit. It seems the cold had set in from S.E. to N.W. In consequence of that, you must have had your maximum of cold on the morning of the twentyninth. Major de Zach adds, that the conjecture was very exact, as at Seeberg, the observatory of Gotha, the maximum of cold had been, on the twenty-ninth of December, at seven o'clock in the morning, being by half a degree intenser than that at Bremen. P. F. On the Measurement of the Northern Degree of Latitude by the French Academists, in the Year 1736. EVERAL doubts having been raised, even from principles, against this celebrated measurement, on which the knowledge of the figure and dimensions of our globe so greatly depends, the royal academy of sciences at Stockholm has resolved to have the same degree of northern latitude measured over again by their own mathematicians. There are, however, some obstacles to be overcome before they can set out on the undertaking. One of them refers to the instruments requisite for an operation that demands such great precision. They do not seem to be disposed to intrust their own artists with the execution of them, and complain that some London mathematical instrument makers, of the first reputation, are very dilatory in executing the orders which they receive. Meanwhile the royal society has sent one of its members, Mr. Göns Svanberg, to Torneo, where the first measurement had been made, for the purpose of taking a preliminary view of the situation and other local circumstances of that place and the environs. Mr. Svanberg informs the royal society, that, as the country round Torneo appears very level, and the northern chain of mountains, which extends to Kittisvara, is pretty far distant, and so inconsiderable in size, that, at the highest computation, it would not comprise a cube of a quarter of a league, the astronomical observations could not be influenced by its attractive power, even to the amount of one second; and that the error thence resulting in the measurement would still be less less than seven toises, which were to be added to the degree measured. But the question is, whether or not about one hundred toises were to be substracted to adapt that measurement to a series of others, and also to general principles of mechanics. Mr. Svanberg is of opinion, that the measuring of the base of the net of triangles upon the ice of a river, and taking it for a horizontal line, must have greatly influ enced the result; but still more the imperfection of the instruments used at that time. He likewise observes, that, measuring the relative sites above and below the horizon on those points, where the triangles had been connected, he found his observations so greatly different from those made by the French academists, that the errors could neither be attributed to the imperfection of the instruments, nor to the inaccuracy of observations, but must be derived from the great variation of the refraction near the horizon. Finally, Mr. Schröter proposes to measure two bases, with which the net of triangles were to be connected, namely, one upon the lake of Karungi when frozen, the other upon a litle isle at the mouth of Torneo. Fixing at that place the southmost point of the triangles, there would be opportunity of measuring nearly two degrees towards the north, and covering the district with a very convenient net of triangles, P. F. On a remarkable Measurement of a Degree of Latitude in China. IN 'N the month of December, 1702, father Anthony Thomas, a Jesuit, was ordered by the Emperor Kanghy to measure a degree of latitude. To that purpose a very extensive plain was chosen, and the business of measuring carried on in the presence of all the mandarins of the mathematical tribunal, and even of one of the sons of the emperor, who wished to be an eye witness of the .operation. The result was, that 1° 1′32′′. the part of the meridian then measured, comprehended exactly 200 Chinese stadia, at 360 geometrical paces each, consequently one degree 70,206 paces. The proportion of the Chinese foot to the old Roman foot, according to Villalpando, is stated by the Jesuits to be 16:15, which makes 74,886 geometrical paces measured by the Roman foot, and reduced to French toises, by the proportion of 1440: 1315, gives 56987,9 toises. This curious piece of geogra phical intelligence has been taken from a letter of father Casparus Castner, a German Jesuit, to father Francis Schuch, of of the same order, at Munich, dated Rome, Janury 10, 1705, and as late as April 19, 1800, communicated to Major de Zach at Gotha by Mr. Gabriel Knogler, professor at Ingolstadt. It is a pity that neither the particular degree of latitude, nor the manner of measuring, is pointed out in this communication. From circumstances, however, we may infer, that a measurement, at which the whole mathematical court and a son of the emperor himself attended, was performed not far from Pekin; and as they had taken their measures on an extensive level ground, and proceeded exactly so far as 200 stadia, it may be fairly concluded that the method of mensuration they adopted, was to measure from one end to the other a straight line extended to that number of stadia. If this, as it appears, has really been the case, it is astonishing that a method so tiresome in its nature, and so imperfect in its principles, could give a result, by which the measurment in question may claim a rank amidst the most exact operations of this kind, performed in modern times with better instruments, and on more accurate principles. We must add, that the emperor, to adjust 200 stadia with one degree of latitude, (all of which were unquestionably supposed, at that time, to be equal in magnitude) has ordered the geometrical foot to be shortened, so that the old geometrical foot of China is to the present one as 40 to 39. P. F. A Letter of Dr. F. J. GALL, of Vienna, to Mr. J. VON RETZER, relative to his Prodromus on the Functions of the Brain in Man and Brutes. AT T length I can have the pleasure of communicating to you a sketch of my treatise, On the Functions of the Brain, and the possibility of discerning various capacities and inclinations by the structure of the head and skull. It has afforded me much pleasure, to have perceived that men of talents and erudition hitherto have quietly waited for the results of my exertions, whilst others have decried me as enthusiast, or a dangerous innovator. The design which I have proposed to myself is principally to point out the nature of the functions of the brain, and its component parts in general; to prove that several capacities and inclinations may be discovered by the elevations or depressions of the head or skull, and to explain, in a perspicuous manner, manner, the important truths and conclusions which result therefrom, for the benefit of medicine, morality, education, legislation, &c. and tend to promote a better knowledge of man in general. It is obvious, that the execution of this design requires an ample illustration by means of drawings and engravings. Hence I shall, at present, adduce only as much of the different qualities, and the marks whereby they may be distinguished, as is necessary, in order to ascertain and illustrate the leading principles. The particular object, at which I aim in the present sketch, is, to state the exact point from which I shall proceed in my investigations; to lay down principles, and to shew how they may be applied to further obser vations. -- Before I proceed, I must request you to observe, that, when speaking of the head or skull, I mean exclusively those bones that inclose the brain, and of these, only those parts that are touched by the brain; nor must you blame me for not making use of the Kantian language. I am not yet so far advanced in my investigations, as to have discovered particular organs for acuteness and profoundness of thought; for the principle of conception, and the different modes of the faculty of ratiocination, &c. &c. I may even be found to have been sometimes rather remiss in defining the ideas which I have adopted, because my chief aim is to render my researches, as to the principal point, intelligible to most readers. The whole work will make two volumes of about ten sheets. The first will contain the principles. I begin with my readers where nature has left off with myself. After I had collected numerous observations, I formed a structure of the laws whereby they are connected. With your leave I shall briefly state the leading principles. 1. Capacities and inclinations are innate in men and brutes. I take it for granted, that you will not contradict this assertion; but as you are a son of Minerva, it is necessary that you should also be provided with arms to defend it. Should, therefore, any one object to you, that if our capacities and inclination be actually innate in us, we are rather the instruments than the masters of our actions, and, consequently, left to the mercy of internal impulse; should he further ask you, what then will become of moral liberty? and how can we he made responsible for our good or bad actions? if any one should put these queries to you, he might be answered in the following manner: "Those who persuade themselves that our dispositions are not innate in us, deduce them from education. But have we not conducted ourselves equally passively, whether our dispositions are innate or acquired? Those that that make the above objection confound the idea of capacity and inclination, of mere disposition, with the mode of acting. The brutes themselves are not absolutely and involuntarily subject to their capacities and inclinations. Powerfully as the hound is impelled to pursue game, and the cat to catch mice, they are, notwithstanding, trained by repeated chastisement to resist the gratification of these instincts. Birds repair the damages which their nests have sustained, and the bees cover with wax the bodies of dead animals which they cannot remove out of their hive. But man, besides his animal faculties, possesses the power of expressing his ideas by means of language, and of acquiring a high degree of refinement by means of education; two inexhaustible sources of knowledge and motives. His mind is accessible to truth and error, to the notions of right and wrong, as well as of an independent existence; the past and the future can influence his actions; he is gifted with a sense of morality, and with a clear consciousness, &c. &c. Provided with these arms, man wages war against his inclinations. These continue, nevertheless, charms that lead him into temptation; but are by no means so powerful that they could not be blunted or suppressed by apposite or stronger inclinations. Man is exposed to the charms of voluptuousness, and inclined to gratify his sensuality: but morality, conjugal love, health, ́ social propriety, religion, &c. &c. operate as counter-charms, and actuate him to resist the temptations of voluptuousness. This conflict alone produces virtue, vice and responsibility. What value would self-denial have, if it did not imply a conflict with our desires? Consequently, the more the countercharms are multiplied and strengthened, the more volition and moral liberty does he acquire. The stronger the internal impulse is, the stronger must be the counter-charms that are required to oppose it. Hence arises the necessity and utility of an intimate knowledge of men, as well as of the doctrine of the origin of their capacities and inclinations, of education, legislation, punishments, and rewards, held out by religion. Even the most rigorous divines admit, that the actions of man can be accounted neither bad nor good, if he be not tempted, or absolutely incapable of resisting the overpowering charms of temptation. Who, for instance, would attach any merit to the continence of a man that is an eunuch by birth? Rush quotes an instance of a woman, who was utterly incapable of resisting the desire of committing theft, though she was endowed with every moral accoinplishment. I know of similar instances, even where the commission. 4 |