all doubt, was not native with the Greeks or Romans, but foreign. If it be admitted that it is not a German word, it may be a question whether the words of similar signification, anken, schmalz, and schmeer were not more in use. In Lipsius's glossaries of the ninth century Butyrum is explained by Knosmer: schmeer may therefore be the most ancient German word, which is still used to signify any thick fat substance, and retains its original meaning in the Swedish and Danish Smör*. If the word butter had not been foreign to the Greeks, Aristotle would certainly have used it in his description of the parts of milk, and not have employed Aragorns and ixa;; nor would Dioscorides have said: "The Scythians, not the Greeks, gave to the fattest parts of milk the name of butter." By what means the name of butter became so general, and was introduced into all the European languages, cannot now, perhaps, be more satisfactorily explained, than the fortune of many other words. Probably the Thracians had a commercial intercourse with the Greeks, and communicated to them the name of butter, together with the thing; and as the Getoe, according to the account of Strabo, were a tribe of the Thracians who colonized the northern parts of Europe, the word might by their means be introduced into the northern languages, and therefore into the German. This, however, was not the only word by which the ancient nations significd what we call butter. The inhabitan's of the island of Cyprus called it inpos, and the Phrygians Tigor, a word preserved by Hippocrates, and explained by Galen, in his elucidation of the obscure words in the writings of Hippocrates, to signify butter. Erotian, likewise, in his Onomasticon on Hippocrates, gives the same explanation, and cites for it a writer whose works are now lost, Thoas of Ithaca. The Romans it is certain borrowed many words from the nations called Barbarians; as lancea from the Spaniards; gæsa, pretoritum, rheda, essedum from the Gaul's; framea, marca, ganza, glæsum, sapo from the Germans. Among the latter is especially to be noticed the word Melca, which is evidently the low Dutch Melk, milk. They had probably become acquainted among the Germans with a kind of coagulated milk, prepared by art, which they learned to make, and held in high estimation both as an eatable and a cooling medicine; and not having a name for it in their own language, gave it that by which it was called by the Germans, Melca. See the passages of ancient authors, in which it is mentioned in Nonius de Re Cibaria lib. 2. cap. 16. p. 211.

Thus in Genesis XVIII. 8. Abraham "took butter and milk?" the Swedish translation has Smör och miclk, and the Danish Smör og meik.

The

The ancient etymologists appear to have considered the word butyrum as an obscure foreign word, and not being able to assign its origin, have passed it over in silence. Galen and Erotian, in their glossaries on Hippocrates, give no particular account of it.

(To be continued.)

PHILOSOPHY.

ART. X. Theophron, oder: es muss durchaus ein Gott seyn, &c. &c.-Theophron; or, There must be a God! By M. K. H. SINTENIS. pp. 231. 8vo. Zerbst. Füchsel.

1800.

This composition is chiefly designed for unlearned readers. It is divided into two parts. In the six sections, into which the first part is subdivided, the author not only shews, that unless we believe in the existence of a supreme all-disposing being, the origin and purpose of the mental faculties of man and the material world cannot be accounted for; but also endeavours to prove, that the want of objective proofs is no loss for us, because we cannot comprehend them; because our virtue and dignity would thereby be eclipsed; and, because we have a more congenial proof of it in our moral nature, of which he treats at large from p. 79 to 126. In the two last sections, Mr. Sintenis endeavours to prove, that there is also a timeless existence, which is attributed to God; and, at the same time, refutes some of the principal objections of the Atheists. In the second part, from p. 155, the notion of God is fixed. After having proved, that the Spi nozistic, deistic, and theistic notions are untenable and insufficient, he establishes, p. 184, the following notion, as founded upon the laws of reason, and on our impulse to strive after happiness: "God, as the supreme moral being, is the original source, creator, preserver, ruler, and judge of the moral order of things." Some inferences derived from this idea, conclude this truly excellent composition.

ART. XI. Mancherley zur Geschichte der metakritischen Invasion. Nebst einem Fragment einer ältern Metakritch, &c. &c.-Miscellaneous Contributions towards an History of the Metacritical Invasion. Together with a Fragment of a Metacriticism of an older date, by I. G. HAMANN, called the Magus of the North, and several Tracts relative to the Kantian Philosophy. pp. xviii, and 256. 8vo. Königsberg. Niclovius. 1800.

The fame which Herder has acquired as an elegant writer

and

and an acute philosopher, justly raised the expectation of all Germany to the highest degree, when he declared himself an opponent to Kant's philosophy. But an almost universal indignation against this veteran writer ensued, when he, in his Metacriticism, attacked the system of the venerable sage of Königsberg with an acrimony and scurrility unbecoming a philosopher, and diametrically contrary to the liberal principles exhibited by him in his justly admired Briefen zur Beförderung der Humanität. The present collection of remarkable contributions towards an history, his attacks upon the Kantian system, cannot, therefore, but excite the universal attention of the literary and philosophical public. It is, indeed, in many respects interesting and instructive. The editor, who signs himself F. B. Rink, of Königsberg, descants with noble frankness both upon the honorable reception and the unmerited obloquy which the Kantian philosophy has experienced, and, with Kant's approbation, communicates the following vindicatory documents: 1. A Summary Survey of the Criticism of pure Reason, translated from the French of Mr. Vilters, who successfully attempted to excite, by means of this faithful representation of Kant's leading principles, in the philosophers of his nation, a desire of becoming better acquainted with the new philosophy, This French epitomator judging, (p. 55) that Kant had not established a System of Metaphysics, but only investigated its possibility, and even declared, that it was impossible a really scientific system of metaphysics could be established. The editor opposes to this assertion Kant's corrective public declaration. 2. On the Three Main Pillars of the most Modern Empyrism of a fantasticating* Reason, viz. Space, Time, and Faculty: by M. Iähsche (a pupil of prof. Kant.) In this treatise Kant's criticism of pure reason is most ably vindicated against Herder's metacriticism, The author, at the same time, shews the striking contrast between Herder's former respectful homage paid to Kant as a teacher of philosophy and a man, in the sixth collection of his Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanität, and the bitter invectives with which his metacriticism abounds; relating, on this occasion, Kant's solemn declaration, that Herder had derived the leading ideas of his philosophema from Kant's earlier dogmatical lectures, which he attended, and manifestly had pirated a treatise of the late I. G. Hamann, of Königsberg, in attempting to "refute the modern through the old Kant." Mr. Herder having appealed, in his metacriticism, to the judgment of the German nation, Mr. Iähsche here quotes

Sit venia verbo !

VOL. II.

Q

several

several public declarations of its literary representatives, namely the reviews of that work contained in the literary gazettes of Gotha, Tubingen, and Erlangen. 3. Metacri ticism of the Purism of Reason: by I. G. Hamann. To this belongs the supplement: Parellelism between the earlier Hamannian and the late Metacriticism of Herder. 4. Ethica Philosophiae critica, ad virum amicissimum Paulum van Hemert, a beautiful Latin didactic poem, on Kant's ethics: by the celebrated Hieron. de Bosch, together with a dedication to Kant. 5. Documents. These contain, besides the opinion of the above mentioned three reviews, a letter, written by Herder to Kant, probably, whilst the former yet resided at Riga. It abounds with the politest assurances of veneration and attachment towards an affectionate and deserving instructor, and contains several traits highly interesting, both in a psychological and literary view. The remaining documents comprise a charactercstic of Herder, copied from the Kirchenund Ketzer almanack of 1781, a very flattering letter to Kant, in which the Italian academy of arts and sciences inform him, that he has been elected a member of their institution, &c. &c.

ART. XI.

Der Teutsche Socrates, &c.-The German Socrates; or, Original Ideas relative to the unalterable necessary Fate of Man; his Prospects and Expectations both here and beyond the Grave. pp. xx. and 347. 8vo. Leipzig. Feind. 1800.

The title conveys no correct idea of the contents of these dialogues, as the doctrine of fatality is not the leading subject, but serves only to introduce a conversation upon the nature and limits of human knowledge, the influence of spirits upon man, the origin and endlessness of the world, upon God, the moral liberty and immortality of the soul, &c. &c. The author's principal view in composing these dialogues, seems to have been, to represent in a generally comprehensible manner, some results of the Kantian philosophy, and to have chosen the dialogical form, because it is particularly fit to produce a superior degree of interest. Although the author displays considerable ability in reducing the technical language of the Kantian philosophy into the more comprehensive language of common life, and thereby has rendered some service to the critical philosophy; yet we cannot say, that he has done justice to his subject, nor that his dialogues exhibit a Socratic spirit.

ART.

ART. XII. Philosophie der Toilette, &c.-The Philosophy of the Toilet: By G. C. CLAUDIUS. pp. viii. and 262. 8vo. Leipzig. Graffè. 1800.

"In this volume (these are the words of the humourous author) the reader will find how foolishly the fashionable world in the higher, middle, and lower stations are used to feel, though it would be much better, were it otherwise." The animated picture which he draws of the fashionable follies of the most splendid circles, and the good natured hu mour with which he endeavours to reclaim the votaries to splendid misery from their dangerous pursuits, proves him a real friend of mankind, and a practical philosopher. In order to render his admonitions more impressive, he contrasts the folly of family pride, of female levity and infatuation, and the depraved manners of the great, with the modest, but fearless display of a noble consciousness of intrinsic worth, and an irresistible desire after truth, purity, and simplicity of thinking. The major part of this volume consists of dialogues. The language is pure and harmonious; and the most lively effusions of chaste wit and comical humour, blended with sentiments highly refined, keep up the reader's attention to the last.

ART. XIII.

Erläuterungen der trancendental Philosophy, &c.-An Exposition of the leading Principles of trancendental Philosophy, &c. &c. By J. E. C. SCHMIDT, and F. W. D. SHELL, Professors of Giessen, No. 1. pp. 108. 8vo. Giessen, Heyer, 1800.

The object which the authors of this publication have in view, is to render the tendency and nature of transcendental, philosophy more generally known. In executing this laudible intention, they proceed with a calmness unruffled by the passionate spirit of dogmatism. The first number, which we have before us, contains three unfinished tracts: 1. On the tendency of critical philosophy, p. 1.-60. The object of transcendental philosophy is, to prove the reality of our knowledge, and to remove all doubts that might be raised against In order to effect this, it demonstrates that our notions agree with their objects, and shews that we must conceive things in this or that manner, and that it is certain that they are so as we must conceive them, because we cannot help conceiving them so as they appear to our mind. The firm conviction that the act of thinking really is thinking, is the foundation of all certainty in the transcendental philosophy. 2.

it.

Of