proved system was adopted in the several branches of her government, and the foundation laid in present suffering for future triumph. The members of the cabinet whose temporizing and unworthy policy had so largely contributed to the downfall of the kingdom, were removed from office; and the commanders who had so disgracefully surrendered the national fortresses after the battle of Jena, were in a body dismissed from the army. The king desired to call the intrepid and sagacious Hardenberg to his councils; but the influence of Napoleon, which had long before caused his removal from the administration, now prevented his return, and Baron Stein was appointed to the chief direction of the government. The talents and zeal of this eminent man soon produced extensive and salutary changes in every department, and the condition of the whole people was greatly improved by his wise regulations. Indeed, the benefits of his policy were so conspicuous and universal, that he, too, fell under the proscription of Napoleon; and the king was reluctantly compelled to send him into honorable exile in Russia. Nevertheless, from his retreat in Courland he really, though privately, continued to direct the Prussian councils; and by the appointment of Scharnhorst, as minister at War, a new impetus was given to the organization and increase of the army, which proved of immense importance in the subsequent struggle for European freedom.

This officer, who served under Lestocq in the late campaign, and aided materially in the result of the battle of Eylau, boldly applied to the military department the admirable principles by which Stein had secured the affections of the burgher classes. He threw open to the citizens generally the higher grades of the army, from which they had hitherto been excluded, abolished corporal punishments, so degrading to the spirit of the soldier, and silently augmented the strength of the army by evading a clause in the treaty with Napoleon, which provided, that Prussia should not keep on foot more than forty-two thousand men; a compliance with which stipulation would at once have reduced her to the rank of a fourthrate power, and disabled her from assuming an attitude of resistance to the encroachments of France. To elude the operation of this clause, and at the same time avoid any direct or obvious infringement of the treaty, he was careful to have no more than the prescribed number at any one time in arms; but the moment the young soldiers were sufficiently drilled, they were sent home, and their places supplied by others; who, again, after the requisite instruction, successively gave way to additional recruits. In this manner, the number of efficient troops gradually rose to two hundred thousand men.

Meantime, the inhabitants of Prussia, oppressed by foreign tyranny, surrounded by rapacious enemies or impotent friends, and deprived of their commerce, and of a market for the fruits of their industry, had no resource but in secret voluntary associations. The universality of suffering produced a corresponding unanimity of opinion, the divisions existing before the war disappeared under its calamities, and the jealousies of rank or class yielded to the pressure of the common distress: hence arose the Tugendbund, a secret society, that embraced nearly the whole male population of the north of Germany. A central body of directors at Berlin guided its movements-provincial committees carried its orders into effect, and an unseen authority was obeyed from one end of the subju. gated provinces to the other.

Austria had been bowed to the earth by the disasters of Austerlitz, but she still possessed the physical and material resources of power; and was now silently, and without interruption, repairing her losses, and taking measures to resume her place in the rank of independent nations. During the interval of hostilities, the Aulic Council were indefatigable in their efforts to restore the equipment and revive the spirit of the army. The artillery taken from the arsenal of Vienna, had been for the most part regained by purchase from the French government; great exertions were made to supply the cavalry regiments with horses; and the infantry was powerfully recruited by the return of prisoners from France, as well as by new enrolments on an extensive scale.

Hitherto, the King of Sweden had bid defiance to Napoleon's threats: the passage around the Gulf of Bothnia was so nearly impracticable to an invading army, that he was comparatively secure from attack; and, with the assistance of England, he did not despair of making head against his enemies, even should Russia be added to their formidable league. But after the pacification of Tilsit, he learned that his transmarine dominions were held by a precarious tenure. On the 13th of July, Marshal Brune laid siege to the fortress of Stralsund, and although the garrison made a determined resistance, they were forced to surrender on the 20th of August, with four hundred pieces of cannon and an immense quantity of military stores.

Notwithstanding the precautions taken by the two Emperors, in their negotiations at Tilsit, to envelope their designs in profound secrecy, the British government possessed a golden key, which laid open their most confidential proceedings. The cabinet of London was aware of the intention of the Imperial despots to seize the fleets of Denmark and Portugal, almost as soon as the purpose was conceived; and the force at Napoleon's disposal left no room for doubt that the resolution would be immediately carried into effect. Indeed, the ink of the treaty was hardly dry, when the French troops, under Bernadotte and Davoust, began to defile in such numbers toward Holstein, as to threaten Denmark with a speedy loss of her continental possessions if she resisted the Emperor's demands: besides, it was manifest from the course of her policy, that she would prefer the Continental alliance, not only to a treaty with England, but also to a doubtful neutrality.

Under these circumstances the British government had a serious duty to perform. They were menaced with an attack from the combined navies of Europe, amounting to one hundred and eighty sail of the line; of which immense force, the fleet in the Baltic was evidently destined to form the right wing. They therefore resolved to deprive the allied powers of this important accession to their strength, and apply it to their own use. A large naval and military force was accordingly assembled to carry out this intention; the latter, consisting of twenty thousand land-troops, and the former, of twenty-seven ships of the line and a large number of inferior vessels: all of which arrived safely off the harbor of Copen. hagen, early in August. An envoy was immediately sent on shore, to demand that the Danish fleet should be surrendered to the British government in pledge, and under an agreement for full restitution, till a general peace should be concluded. This demand was resisted by the prince royal, and both parties prepared to decide the question by the sword. The land troops commenced their disembarkation on the 19th of August, and

On the 1st of

in three days, Copenhagen was completely invested. September, everything being in readiness for the bombardment, the town. was summoned, and an accommodation offered, on condition of the surrender of the Danish fleet. As the prince still rejected the proposal, the bombardment commenced, and continued, with brief interruptions, for three days and nights, during which time an eighth part of the city was laid in ashes. General Peymann, finding that the whole town must inevitably be destroyed if he persisted in the defence, at length consented to capitulate; and unconditionally delivered into the hands of the British, the whole fleet, together with the artillery and naval stores of the capital. In the beginning of October, the British squadron returned to England, with its prize of eighteen ships of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-boats, all in excellent condition.

was

In the mean time, the negotiations for peace with England, contemplated by the treaty of Tilsit, were set on foot, and the cabinet of St. Petersburg tendered their good offices to the English government for the conclusion of a general peace. Mr. Canning replied, that Great Britain was perfectly willing to treat on equitable terms, and requested a frank declaration of the secret articles of the treaty with France, as the best pledge of the friendly and pacific intentions of the Emperor Alexander. This demand was evaded, and while the negotiations were in progress, intelligence arrived of the capture of the Danish fleet. Even then, the Russian Emperor was disposed to treat; but a peremptory note from Napoleon, insisting on the immediate and full execution of the treaty, compelled him to dismiss the English minister from St. Petersburg, and proclaim anew the principles of the Confederacy. This measure followed on the part of Russia, by a declaration of war against Sweden, and the occupation, by the Muscovite troops, of a considerable portion of the Swedish territory: while Denmark resented the capture of her ships by entering into a close alliance with France. About the same time, Turkey, finding herself betrayed and abandoned by France, notwithstanding the stipulations in the treaty of Tilsit, broke off her friendly connexions with the French Emperor, and prepared to renew the war with Russia. In the month of November, Napoleon made a journey to Italy, where important political changes were in progress. Destined, like all the subordinate thrones which surrounded the French Empire, to share in the rapid mutations which that government underwent, the kingdom of Italy was required to alter its Constitution. Napoleon ordered the Legislative body to be superseded by a Senate appointed and paid by the government. Yet, in despite of this arbitrary act, he was received with unbounded adulation in the Italian towns. Their deputies, who waited on him at Milan, vied with each other in extravagant flattery: he was the Redeemer of France, but the Creator of Italy-they had suppiicated Heaven for his victories and his safety-they offered him the tribute of their fidelity and love for ever. Napoleon received their advances graciously, reciprocated them by projecting costly public works, and answered them by heavy pecuniary exactions, and admonitions to the inhabitants to train up their youth to the profession of arms.

These proceedings were followed by further encroachments on the dominions of Western Europe. The town and territory of Flushing, and the towns of Kehl, Cassel, and Wessel, on the right bank of the Rhine, were ceded to France. The Emperor also took possession of Tuscany

and Rome, and disbanded the papal troops in the latter city. He then annexed Ancona, Urbeno, Macerata and Camerino, to the kingdom of Italy. The importance of these acquisitions, however, consisted mainly in the principles on which they were made; for France now, without disguise, assumed the right of annexing neutral and independent states to her dominions by no other authority than the decree of her own Legislature.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

PRELIMINARY MOVEMENTS OF THE PENINSULAR WAR.

WHEN Napoleon returned from Italy to Paris, he fixed his attention on the Spanish Peninsula, and considered the means of bringing the resources of both its monarchies under the immediate control of France.

The indignation of the Spanish government had already been roused to the highest pitch, at hearing of Napoleon's offer to partition their dominions; and they saw, at the same time, that fidelity in alliance and long-continued national service, afforded them no guaranty for the continued support of the French monarch: but that, when it suited his purpose, he did not scruple to purchase a temporary respite from the hostility of an enemy by the permanent spoliation of a friend. While this and various minor causes of offence were fast changing the course of Spanish policy, the Russian ambassador at Madrid, entered into a private treaty with Spain on the 28th of August, 1806, in which compact the court of Lisbon was also included, wherein it was agreed, that as soon as the French armies were far advanced on their road to Prussia, Spain should commence hostilities on the Pyrenees, and invite England to coöperate in the defence of the Peninsula.

This secret negotiation was made known to Napoleon, by the activity of his ambassador at Madrid; but he dissembled his resentment, and resolved to strike a decisive blow in the north of Germany, before he carried out his ulterior designs on Spain and Portugal. The imprudent zeal of the Prince of Peace, gave publicity to the treaty before the proper season arrived; for, in a proclamation issued at Madrid on the 5th of October, 1806, he invited "all Spaniards to unite themselves under the national standards; the rich to make sacrifices for the charges of a war which will soon be called for by the common good; the magistrates to do all in their power to rouse the public enthusiasm, in order to enable the nation to enter with glory into the lists which were preparing." This proclamation reached Napoleon on the field of Jena, the evening after the battle. He, however, contented himself for the moment, with instructing his ambassador to demand an explanation of this extraordinary manifesto, and afterward professed to be satisfied by the assurance that the measure was intended to counteract an anticipated descent of the Moors. The court of Lisbon, justly alarmed at this premature disclosure of their secret designs, speedily disavowed all participation in the project; and, to propitiate the Emperor, required the Earl St. Vincent to withdraw the British squadron from the Tagus.

These events, thus far trivial in themselves, made a great impression on Napoleon. He clearly saw the risk to which he would be exposed, if, while actively engaged in a German or Russian war, he were to be suddenly assailed by the forces of the Peninsula in his rear, where the French frontier was in a great measure defenceless, and whence the armies of England might find an easy entrance into the heart of his dominions. He felt, with Louis XIV., that it was necessary there should be no longer any Pyrenees; and as the Revolution had changed the reigning family on the throne of France, he deemed it indispensable that a similar change should be effected in the Peninsular monarchies. He anticipated little opposition from the people either of Spain or Portugal; considering them, like the Italians, indifferent to political change, provided no diminution was made in their private enjoyments.

The peace of Tilsit gave Napoleon an opportunity to carry out these intentions; and his first measures were to summon the court of Lisbon to shut their ports against England, confiscate all English property within their dominions, and declare war against Great Britain. This was done on the 12th of August. At the same time, Junot repaired to Bayonne with an army of twenty-eight thousand men; and Napoleon, under pretence of anticipating a refusal from the court of Lisbon, seized the Portuguese ships in the French harbors. The government of Portugal was, however, wholly unable to resist Napoleon's demand; they therefore closed their ports and declared war against England: but they refused to confiscate at once the property of the English merchants, and warned them to send off their effects and embark for their own country as speedily as possible. This modified compliance with his requisitions was far from satisfying Napoleon, and he ordered Junot to commence his march into the Portuguese territory. Accordingly, on the 19th of October, that marshal crossed the Bidassoa with his leading divisions; when the court of Lisbon declared that if the French troops entered Portugal, they would retire with their fleet to the Brazils. The threats and concessions of the court were, however, unavailing; for Napoleon had already resolved on the destruction of the House of Braganza, as well as the dethronement of the Spanish House of Bourbon; and events soon followed, which lighted up the flames of the Peninsular War.

In conformity to his orders, Junot pressed on toward Lisbon, and in such haste, that the mere rapidity of his movements almost disorganized his army; and his career through that devoted country was marked by pillage and rapine at every step. The elements of resistance were not wanting in the Portuguese capital. It contained three hundred thousand inhabitants, numerous well-constructed forts, and a garrison of fourteen thousand men. An English squadron lay in the Tagus-for the British government, appreciating the circumstances under which Portugal had been forced to declare war against them, still continued their friendly offices, notwithstanding such declaration—and Sir Sidney Smith, who had command of the British ships, held himself in readiness to unite with the garrison for the defence of the capital. But a little reflection showed the impolicy of contending with the French troops; for, although a temporary success over Junot's disordered corps was of easy attainment, his defeat would have led to the invasion of an overwhelming force which could not be resisted; and which, by its march and conquest, would spread desolation and ruin through the country, to a much greater extent than