passed a law, Feb. 21, 1884, abolishing the system of contracting for the labor of prisoners at so much per day, and followed it up with a law, dated April 18 of the same year, directing the introduction of the 'public-account' or 'piece-price' plan, as the prison authorities should decide. The contract system, it was claimed, was the source of the unfair competition complained of, and these laws were passed under the agitators' influence expressly to prevent such competition.

The new law took effect on the expiration of the old contracts, in July, 1885, and in the reports of the prison officials for the current year we have a summary of the results obtained thus far; and, inasmuch as several states are having the same experience as New Jersey, the conclusions reached by her officials in this matter are of general political as well as scientific interest.

The 'public-account' plan was so generally discredited, that the officials adopted the other alternative under the law; namely, the 'piece-price' plan. Under this system, the contractor pays a fixed price per dozen, gross, or thousand for work done on materials furnished by him. The introduction of this radically new system occasioned some delay for the purchase of machinery, fittingup of shops, etc., and the authorities are cautious enough to state that their experience of the new system has been too limited to admit of unqualified indorsement or condemnation. Nevertheless, all the facts and figures presented in these reports point in the same direction. They prove that not only does the state treasury lose largely by the change from the old contract system, but that the contractors are enabled to put their goods on the market at a less cost for manufacturing than ever before; so that, as far as there is any competition with free labor, it is greater under the 'piece-price' plan than it was before. This is a result which reflects upon the sagacity of the agitators themselves; for, if their pet system can be proved injurious on so short a trial, their stock in trade is exhausted.

One contractor who under the former system paid fifty cents per day for the labor of every convict, skilful or unskilful, who went into his shops, now averages less than half that sum per convict. In one or two cases the contractors now pay a few more cents per day's labor than formerly, but this apparent gain results from greatly increasing the quantity of the work; so that, even with an apparently similar financial result to the state, the product is manufactured cheaper now than under the contract system.

These early conclusions from this new departure are interesting. They show that the labor agitators are many, and the mass of political scientists

and humanitarians are right in upholding the contract system as the best and most profitable for the employment of convict-labor. Reasonable limitations to the operation of the contract system may very possibly be suggested by experience; but these data from New Jersey ought to insure the rejection of the 'piece-price' plan everywhere, or else some radical modifications in its details. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER.

NOTES AND NEWS.

THERE is not much to be said of the popularscience articles in the December magazines, for there are not many of them; and what there are, are very popular, though quite interesting. The Atlantic adds another to the already long list of reviews on the recent 'Life of Agassiz,' but fails to say, what seems tolerably obvious, that the time has not yet come when the value of Agassiz's scientific labors, or indeed of his influence on the progress of natural history in the United States, can be correctly estimated. John Burrows, in the Century, gives, in very readable form, some notes on bird enemies, jays, owls, vermin, mice, snakes, and 'collectors.' In Harpers' magazine there is a highly aesthetic article called 'A winter walk.' It is beautifully illustrated, and well adapted to the wants of ladies of scientific turn of mind. Perhaps the author tried to imitate Thoreau ; but if he did, he failed. To persons interested in ornithology, Mr. Edward C. Bruce's article in Lippincott's magazine, on Birds of a Texan winter,' will doubtless be entertaining. After mentioning a few of our birds that do not migrate, Mr. Bruce goes on to tell us of the northern birds he has seen in Texas during the winter, plovers, herons, wild geese, etc. The English magazines have even less than the AmeriThere are can on natural science this month. only two articles to be mentioned. One is by Benjamin Kidd, in Longman's magazine, on the 'Humble-bee,' and gives some description of the habits of this insect, based, it would seem, largely on the author's personal observation. The other is by W. Mattieu Williams, in the Gentleman's magazine, and is called Science notes.' topics dealt with are, the origin of boracic acid, meteoric explosions, magnetic sifting of meteorites, fireproof paper structures, the future of the negro, the sleep of fishes, and icebergs and climate.

The

The dog by which Kaufmann, who is now in Paris for treatment under Pasteur, was bitten, is shown conclusively to have been mad, a dog bitten by it nearly at the same time having since died of unmistakable rabies.

-Prof. Edward Süss delivered in the Geo

logical institute of Vienna, on Nov. 3, a lecture on the means of preventing explosions in coalmines. Experiments have been made in the Karwin colliery in order to obtain, if possible, positive results, and these experiments are still being continued. It has been demonstrated that whenever the barometer falls, the quality and intensity of explosive gases increase. The Austrian government has directed that the weather-charts published shall be provided by all the managers of coal-mines in that kingdom, and at Karwin a regulation is in force to the effect that at the approach of a barometric depression all work is to cease in dangerous places.

-The Report on the geology of Marion county, Kentucky,' recently published, is in many respects a curiosity. The history, topography, and drainage, treated of in five pages, is followed by the geology in fourteen pages, archeology in five pages, and a list of fossils and notes on Beatricea in eleven pages. The following selection will illustrate the style of the report: "The soil from the disintegration of the Crab orchard shale is quite poor, and responds very slowly to the toils of the farmer; while the forest growth is very much dwarfed, although similar in species to that of the tall, well-shaped, large-sized timber-trees of the epoch before it. The forests originally were well timbered" (p. 17). This last sentence is particularly remarkable.

The

Most of the rivers of New South Wales fall into the sea through sandy estuaries obstructed by extensive bars. The removal of these bars, or rather the formation of practicable channels through them, is of great importance to the development and trade of the colony. A paper on this subject was read before the Royal society of New South Wales in June, 1884, by Mr. Walter Shellsbear. The formation of bars at the mouths of rivers is stated by the author to be mainly due to the action of waves in lifting large quantities of sand as they pass into shallow water. sand is carried up the estuary by the incoming tide, and deposited when beyond the action of the waves. The ebb-tide, being unassisted by the waves, is unable to remove the sand, and hence the tendency is to close the entrance. strong freshets may for a time sweep a portion of the obstruction away, the frequent occurrence of long droughts in New South Wales leaves the river-mouths in a very bad state. The author advocates the use of break-waters, jetties, and training dikes, more or less parallel, and running out into deep water, three and a half fathoms or more, a depth beyond which the waves are stated to have no appreciable effect on the bottom.

While

LONDON LETTER.

ONE of the matters which grew out of the education conference at the International health exhibition in London in August, 1885, some account of which appeared in the columns of Science, was the proposal for the establishment of a teaching university for London. The present University of London is mainly an examining board. In the case of its medical degrees, attendance upon specified courses of instruction in one or other of the medical schools recognized by the university is compulsory. The degrees in arts, science, etc., may be obtained by any persons, of either sex, who can satisfy the examiners as to their attainments, no matter whether that knowledge has been acquired by private study, private tuition, or college attendance. In point of mere attainment, the London degrees rank higher than the corresponding degrees of any other university; but they do not imply, as those of Oxford, Cambridge, etc., do, that their holder has been taught in colleges by men of university rank and standing, and according to university methods. The scheme of examinations laid down by the senate of the University of London naturally exercises a very wide influence upon the subjects taught in schools and colleges all over England; since more than two thousand candidates annually enter for the matriculation, or entrance examination, of the university. As there is no official connection between the senate and examiners on the one hand, and the principal professors and teachers on the other, the latter (some of whom are men of the greatest eminence and of world-wide fame) naturally feel aggrieved at the dominant influence which the university exercises over their courses of instruction, since they are practically compelled to teach those subjects prescribed for examination, and almost those alone. Moreover, there is a growing feeling that the enormously wealthy guilds and companies of the ancient city of London will be shortly compelled, either by actual legislation or by the potent force of public opinion, to appropriate more of their funds than they at present do, to educational purposes. These were the two main ideas which led to the formation of the Association for the promotion of a teaching university for London. On this body are representatives of all the principal educational institutions of London, in the four great faculties of arts, science, laws, and medicine. Large bodies take time to move, and, where there is much diversity of opinion, it is very difficult to formulate a scheme which shall meet with the acceptance even of a bare majority. This desirable stage has not yet been attained. The members of the existing university of London, however, naturally had to con

sider what should be their attitude towards the new body. Accordingly, at a very full meeting of convocation (as the general body of graduates above a certain standing is termed) last summer, the whole subject was referred to a special committee of forty (of which the present writer was a member), to consider and report. This committee appointed Lord Justice Fry its chairman, and a scheme was by it prepared for the re-organization of the existing university from the points of view of the new association, — a task the more easy, as several gentlemen were members of both bodies. At an adjourned meeting of 'convocation' held on Dec. 8, this scheme was rejected, and, as the former committee refused to act, another committee of twenty-five was appointed to modify it in the sense indicated by convocation.

The year which is now drawing to a close has been marked by greater losses to English biology than any since 1882, which witnessed the deaths of Mr. Darwin, Prof. Francis Balfour, and Sir Wyville Thomson. Prof. Morrison Watson was a well-known anatomist of hardly more than middle age; while Drs. W. B. Carpenter, J. Gwyn Jeffreys, and T. Davidson were almost the last of that older school of zoologists who are too often looked down upon by the younger generation which has been trained to minute histological work. Dr. Davidson had the happiness of completing the work to which he had devoted the labors of a long life; but his two old friends have left much material behind them, the working-out of which must be completed by other hands. Carpenter's loss will be severely felt by those who believe in the organic nature of eozoon. He had accumulated a very great amount of material, which was regarded by all to whom he had shown it as proving his case in the most satisfactory manner possible.

Dr.

An important reform has just been carried out at Oxford. Honor candidates in law, history, and science, will henceforth be excused from the classical examination at the end of their first, or the beginning of their second, year, which is known as 'moderations.' The preliminary examination 'responsions' can be passed before residence begins, either in the leaving examination of a public school or at the university itself; and men can therefore specialize during the whole of their university course, instead of having their attention distracted from physics, chemistry, or biology by the necessity of getting through 'mods.' This has long been the case at Cambridge, and is one of the reasons for the overflowing state of its medical school.

The old public schools are also beginning formally to recognize that there are other branches

of education besides the classics. Rugby is about to institute a modern side; and changes in the same direction are being gradually introduced at Eton, her great rival, Harrow having long had something of the kind. The committee of the city and guilds of London institute for the advancement of technical education have offered free studentships of the annual value of thirty pounds, tenable for three years at the central institution, to be awarded by the head master of each of the principal public schools. It will be a matter of some interest to see what proportion of boys will avail themselves of these opportunities for obtaining the higher technical education. London, Dec. 17.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

* Correspondents are requested to be as brief as possible. writer's name is in all cases required as proof of good faith. The moon's atmosphere.

W.

The

My friend, Professor Langley of Allegheny, has recommended to me to give you an account of a phenomenon twice observed by me on the occasion of two occultations of Jupiter. At the moment of contact, the planet, instead of passing behind the moon, appeared to be projected upon the moon's edge, until nearly or quite one-half of the disk of the planet was visible on the moon's surface. Then suddenly As the whole planet disappeared behind the moon. this phenomenon must be due to refraction, it would indicate a lunar atmosphere. The instrument with which I observed the occultation was a telescope made for me by Alvan Clark, with a four-and-a-half inch aperture. JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE.

Jamaica Plain, Mass., Dec. 31.

Demand for good maps.

Your comments in the number for Dec. 18, on the character of our small maps, are to me very welcome, and I hope you will follow the subject up till some decided impression is made on the minds of the publishers. The maps in our school geographies are, to me as a teacher, a constant source of vexation. Indistinct, incomplete, inaccurate, they baffle attempts at close work, and so compel, if solely depended upon, a very elementary grade of work. The small schulatlas that a German boy buys for twenty-five cents is worth ten times as much as our best geography

maps.

You spoke of old plates. I have seen within two years a wall-map of North America in which the Yukon River had not been drawn. Said map was shown as a sample in the office of one of our largest publishing-houses.

When the German publishers bring out their work so perfect, it seems as if the material was provided for American geography-makers. Is the reason they do not use it because, with German lettering, the maps cannot be reproduced by the photographic process and be available? Or are they afraid of repeating the mistake of one of our atlas-makers, who produced a town in Africa called Elfenbein ?

However it may be, we do need better school-maps.

They should be maps in which the various features of surface are clearly, carefully, and fully drawn. I do not mean maps full of names, but full of features. To illustrate: Where are the Alps? The Alps are in Switzerland; and the schoolboy finds on his map ' Alps' printed on the south side of that portion labelled Switzerland.' A good map would show at least four ranges there; and proper maps of Austria, Italy, and France, would teach him that Alps' is a generic term with at least thirteen applications in southern Europe.

Norway and Sweden appear on most school-maps with but one or two rivers, because, I suppose, there is no long and large stream there important enough to have its name memorized; but what an idea does such a map give of that country? I can count over sixty rivers there on a map in Andree; and enough of them should be drawn, even if without naming, to show the true character of the surface.

Similar instances could be given by the dozen. But I want to take up another point. When are we to see a geography with an index? Studying geography by the topical method, an index is well-nigh indispensable. By any method, twice as effective work can be done if the material can be viewed from the stand-point of the kind of feature, production, occupation, or race, as well as in relation to this or that political subdivision.

I do not think it too much to insist on, that every ocean, sea, gulf, bay, strait, channel, lake, sound, harbor, canal, river, waterfall, bight, firth, bayou, roadstead, etc.; every land feature, every product, occupation, language, religion, form of government, town and political division, - in short, every thing namable that has been mentioned in the text or appeared by name in the maps, should be indexed by page or section, and, in case of map features, with latitude and longitude.

Why, even in Morden's ' Geography rectified,' published in 1693, there is a copious index, not to mention later works (1809, 1831) likewise favored.

With an index to aid him, a scholar can classify, compare, and infer; and the value of the text-book would be doubled.

Nor would it be difficult to mention other ways in which our geographies could be improved. But if we can first have some better maps and an index worthy the name, we shall have gained much. I hope you will not be content with a few leaders. The matter is one of no slight importance. Perhaps, if our publishers read Prince Kropotkin's article in the December number of the Nineteenth century, they would be inspired to do better. Let us hope they will. C. H. LEETE. New York, Dec. 31.

The temperature of the moon.

Mr. Langley does not seem to have examined my condition for determining the moon's temperature with sufficient care. It is true that in the equation a moon of maximum radiating power was assumed ; but it had been first shown that the temperature of such a moon must be the same as that of any other, provided the relative radiating and absorbing powers are the same, as is usually assumed. The equation is between the absolute rate of radiation and absorption of heat, in which r, the relative radiating power, enters as a factor on the one side, and a, the relative absorbing power, on the other. If these are equal, of course they can be omitted, which is the

same as using unity as the relative radiating and absorbing powers, and so the same as assuming that the moon has a maximum relative radiating and absorbing power. The relative radiating and absorbing powers, and the proportion of heat reflected, do not, therefore, come into the condition at all. It cannot be said with propriety that the moon loses heat by reflection, as stated by Mr. Langley; for the reflected heat has not been appropriated by absorption, and therefore cannot be said to be the moon's heat. It has come to the moon's surface and been rejected, and it has nothing to do with its temperature. The condition which determines the static temperature is, that the rate with which heat is radiated must be exactly equal to that with which it is absorbed. When this is the case, there can be neither increase nor decrease of temperature.

But perhaps this matter will be more readily comprehended by looking at it in a less mathematical way. We have a mocn, say, with a surface of maximum relative radiating and absorbing power, and with a temperature below the static temperature corresponding to the rate with which it is receiving heat. With this temperature, the absolute rate with which the moon radiates heat is less than that with which it is receiving and absorbing it, and the difference goes toward raising the temperature of the body. But as the temperature increases, and with it the rate of radiating heat, though not proportionally, it after a time rises to that temperature at which the rate with which heat is radiated from the moon is exactly equal to that with which it is received and absorbed by it, and its temperature then remains stationary. This, expressed in a mathematical form, is the equation of condition.

But now suppose that the moon's surface is such that it radiates and absorbs heat at only half, or any other proportion, of the rate that one of maximum relative radiating and absorbing power does. Our condition is still satisfied; for although the moon's surface now is radiating heat at a rate which is only half, or any other assumed proportion, of what it was before, it is also absorbing at only the same rate, whatever it may be, and there is no change of temperature needed to satisfy the condition of static temperature. Hence, so far as the static temperature of the moon is concerned, it is no matter what part of the heat received is absorbed, and what reflected; these being complementary to each other, and both together equal to the heat radiated by a moon of maximum relative radiating power, under the condition of a static temperature. Of course, our condition for determining the temperature is not applicable where there is a rapid increase or decrease of temperature. WM. FERREL.

Washington, Jan. 4.

Yankee.

In a paper upon the origin of 'Yankee Doodle,' read lately before the New York historical society, Mr. George H. Moore states that the word 'Yankee is pure Dutch. 'Yankin,' he says, in the vocabulary of the early New York Dutch, meant to grumble, snarl, or yelp,' and its derivative noun meant a howling cur.'

But where did the New York Dutch get the word? I think from the Indians. Peter Martyr says that Sebastian Cabot named the coasts of Newfoundland and thereabouts the land of baccalaos, because in the seas he found a multitude of large fish which

the natives called by that name. This word 'baccalaos' was used by the Basque fishermen, and meant 'codfish; and, if the natives used it, it was only after they had learned it from the Basques.

Sailors are proverbially profane, and most likely these sailors of the olden time made use of the name of the Deity, much as sailors do at the present day. The Basque name for God is Yainkoa,' and no doubt it was frequently used by the fishermen; so frequently, indeed, that the Indians called the strangers by it, just as the little urchins of Havre and Dieppe now call the English tourists 'Meestaire Goddam,'

The Indians employed the term to indicate a foreigner, and from them the early colonists learned it. It may afterwards have passed into a word or term of contempt, but it had its origin in the attempt of the Indians to pronounce the Basque word 'Yainkoa.' TH. E. SLEVIN.

San Francisco, Dec. 25.

'Chinook winds.'

In an article by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, on the Canadian Plains, in the last number of Science, the socalled Chinook winds of that portion of these plains adjacent to the base of the Rocky Mountains, are described as warm, dry winds sweeping up from the great Utah and Columbia basins.' In a previous number of Science (iv. 166) Mr. Lester F. Ward, in speaking of similar winds in the upper Missouri and Yellowstone valleys, says, "It is also a matter of record that the temperature on this latitude diminishes toward the east, and that colder weather prevails in Minnesota than in Dakota, and in Dakota than in Montana. The people attribute this to the occurrence of what they denominate Chinook winds; i.e., winds laden with moisture, and moderated in temperature from the warmer regions of the Pacific slope." By the inhabitants of the region in which these winds occur, they are very generally explained as currents of air coming from the warm surface of the Pacific Ocean, and flowing eastward through the low passes in the mountains.

Having had occasion to note the character and effect of these peculiar winds while engaged in geological and exploratory work in the western part of the plains and in the mountains at different times during the last ten years, I may be pardoned for stating my belief that the above theories are unsatisfactory, and based on hasty or imperfect consideration of the facts.

As experienced, the Chinook is a strong westerly wind, becoming at times almost a gale, which blows from the direction of the mountains out across the adjacent plains. It is extremely dry, and, as compared with the general winter temperature, warm. Such winds occur at irregular intervals during the winter, and are also not infrequent in the summer, but, being cool as compared with the average summer temperature, are in consequence then not commonly recognized by the same name. When the ground is covered with snow, the effect of the winds in its removal is marvellous, as, owing to the extremely desiccated condition of the air, the snow may be said to vanish rather than to melt, the moisture being licked up as fast as it is produced.

Winter winds of this character occur over a tract of country stretching at least as far north as the Peace River (north latitude 56°), and at least as far south

as northern Montana,- a distance of about six hundred miles. In the corresponding portion of its length, the Cordillera belt is comparatively strict and narrow, the western edge of the plains being separated from the ocean by about four hundred miles only of mountainous country. In this circumstance, taken in connection with the moisture laden character of the air along the northern part of the west coast, we find a clew to the correct explanation of the remarkable characteristics of the so-called Chinook wind. It is in effect, I conceive, precisely similar to that of the foehn of the Alps, and is due to the great amount of heat rendered latent when moisture is evaporated or air expanded in volume, but which becomes again sensible on condensation of moisture or compression of the air.

To meteorologists the phenomenon requires no further elucidation; but as it is one which attracts much attention in the west, owing to its important effect in removing the snow from the grazing-lands, the following more detailed notice, written by me with special reference to the Peace River country, may be of interest (quoted, with little alteration, from the Report of progress, geological survey of Canada, 1879-80, p. 77 B.) :

"The pressure in the upper regions of the atmosphere being so much less than in the lower, a body of air rising from the sea-level to the summit of a mountain-range must expand; and this, implying molecular work, results in an absorption of heat and consequent cooling. The amount of this cooling bas been estimated as about one degree centigrade for a hundred metres of ascent when the air is dry, but becomes reduced to half a degree when the temperature has fallen to the dew-point of the atmosphere, and precipitation of moisture as cloud, rain, or snow begins; the heat resulting from this condensation retarding to a certain degree the cooling due to the expansion of the air. When the air descends again on the farther side of the mountain-range, its condensation leads to an increase of sensible heat equal to one degree centigrade for each hundred metres. It is owing to this circumstance that places in the south of Greenland, on the west coast, during the prevalence of south easterly winds, which blow over the high interior of the country, have been found, in winter, to experience a temperature higher than that of north Italy or the south of France, though the North Atlantic Ocean, from which the winds come, can at this season be little above the freezing-point. The wind well known in the Alps as the foehn is another example of the same phenomenon. It is thus easy to understand how the western plains may be flooded with dry air, but much inferior in temperature to that of the coast, notwithstanding the intervening mountain-barrier.

1

The data are yet wanting for an accurate investigation of the circumstances of our west coast in this regard, but a general idea of the fact may be gained. We may assume that the air at the sea-level is practically saturated with moisture, or already at its dew-point; that in crossing the mountainous region the average height to which the air is carried is about 2,000 metres (6,560 feet), and that it descends to a level of about 700 metres (2,296 feet) in the Peace River country. The loss of sensible heat on eleva

tion would in this case amount to 10° C. (18° F.); the

1 The figures are Dr. Hann's, quoted by Hoffmeyer in the Danish geographical society's journal, and reproduced in Nature, August, 1877.