that both are transitory is a doctrine contained in the same oracle of God, namely, that “heaven and earth shall pass away, but the word of the Lord will not pass away." society, it often happens in the ordinary course of | ness in heaven," it is also said that "generations things, that the borders of two adjacent kingdoms pass away, but the earth abideth for ever." And are wasted with a perpetual succession of inroads and affrays, while the interior provinces of either kingdom enjoy continued and profound tranquillity. And none who bestows a proper attention on the subject will make an objection of religion. For it was only a heathen flourish to ascribe to a material heaven the quality of being impregnable to decay. The sacred Scriptures ascribe eternity and destructibility equally to heaven and earth, though they assign to them a different glory and an unequal reverence. For if it be recorded, that "the sun and moon bear faithful and eternal wit These things we have noted, not from any ambition of novelty in opinion, but because, not in ignorant conjecture, but instructed by examples, we foresee that these fantastical divorces, and distinctions of objects and of regions, beyond what truth admits, will prove a serious impediment to true philosophy and the contemplation of nature. W. G. G. THE THEORY OF THE FIRMAMENT. Bur as so many foiling inconveniences are found to spring up on all sides, it should be deemed satisfactory if any thing can be avouched less revolting. But bodies that are simple and perfect, not of such as Let us, therefore, construct a scheme of the universe, according to that measure of history hitherto known to us, reserving for our future judgment all new lights, after history, and through history, our philosophy, by induction, may have reached a maturer age. But we will, in the out-cury and sulphur, and generally crude and fat set, premise some points that have reference to the matter composing the heavenly bodies, whence their motion and formation may be better understood; afterwards setting forth our thoughts and ideas of that motion itself, the chief subject under discussion. Nature, then, in the separating of matter, seems to have drawn an impassable bar between the rare and dense, and to have assigned the globe of the earth to the order of the dense; but every thing, from the very surface of the earth, and its waters, to the utmost extremity of the firmament, to that of the rare or volatile, as it were, to twin classes of first principles, not indeed of equal but of suitable portions. Nor indeed does either the water clinging to the clouds, or the wind pent up in the earth, disarrange this natural and appropriate position of things: but this difference, between rare or volatile, and dense or tangible, is entirely primordial or essential, and is what the system of the universe chiefly has recourse to. It proceeds from a state of things the most simple possible this is from the abundance and scarceness of matter, in proportion to its extension. What belong to the order of subtile or volatile, as found here among us, (we are speaking of those bodies, or, in other words, bodies that have a repugnance to, and such as are susceptible of, flame; (for salts are of a compounded nature, consisting of crude and at the same time also of inflammable parts.) It is now to be seen by what compact these two great families of things, air and flame, shall have occupied by far the greater part of the universe, and what are those parts they hold in the system. In air nearest to the earth, flame lives but a momentary life, and utterly perishes. But after the air has begun to be more depurate from the effluviæ of the earth and well rarefied, the nature of flame through various* adventures explores its way, and tries to take its station in the air, and after a time acquires some duration, not from succession, as with us, but in identity;† which takes place for a time in some of the feebler comets, which are in a manner of an intermediate nature between a successive and a fixed flame; the flamy nature, however, is not fixed or established, before its arrival at the body of the moon. There the flame lays down * Per varios casus, per tot discrimina rerum, Virg. Æn. iii. 208. Per varios casus tentat et experitur,' may be translated, 'after various adventurous efforts tries,' or, 'adventurous through many casualties tries.' + Identitus: quævis actio repetita. its extinguishable part, and protects itself on all subdued, and assimilated, so as to thoroughly sides, but yet it is a flame, weak without vigour, endure and become subservient to the sidereal. and having little of radiation of that kind; that is, Wherefore, from the earth to the summit of the neither vivid from its own nature, nor much firmament are found three genera of regions, and, excited by a contrary one; neither is it sincere, as it were, three stages, as relate to the region in but, from its composition with an ethereal sub- which flame is extinguished, the region in which stance, such as is there met with, it is stained and flame disperses itself; moreover, to quibble about mixed up. And in the region of Mercury flame contiguity and continuity in soft and flowing has not very plentifully established itself, since, bodies, would be an utter vulgarism. Nevertheby the accumulation of its whole amount, it is less, that point should be understood, namely, able to form only a small planet, and that withal that nature is accustomed to advance to spaces by labouring and struggling, like an ignis fatuus, gradual steps, then, of a sudden, by leaps, and to with a great and highly disturbed diversity of alternate this sort of process, otherwise no fabric fluctuating motions, and not bearing to be sepa- could be formed did she always proceed by insenrated but for a small distance from the guardian sible degrees; for what a jump as respects the protection of the sun. Moreover, after we arrive expansion of matter is there from water to air, at the region of Venus, the flamy nature begins to even ever so dense or clouded, and yet these gain strength and to wax brighter, and to be col-bodies, so different in their nature, are joined lected into a globe of a tolerable size; neverthe- together in position and superficies without any less, she also is the handmaid of the sun, and medium or interposing distance: nor is it a less shudders with an abhorrence of any greater leap as to a substantial nature, from the region of recession from him. But in the region of the sun, the air to the region of the moon; in like manner, flame is set, as it were, on a throne, the mean a prodigious one from the firmament. Wherefore, being among the flames of the planets, for there it if any one shall have taken for continuous and is stronger and more glittering than the flames of contiguous, not from the manner of their annexathe fixed stars, on account of the greater restrain- tion, but from the diversity of the bodies coning* influence shed all around, and the closest nected, those three regions we have spoken of, possible union. But flame in the region of Mars they can only be held for contiguous in their is observed to be likewise powerful, denoting by limits. its splendour the sun's vicinity, yet existing of its But now it is time to notice, in a clear and exown proper virtue, and admitting of a separation plicit manner, the amount and nature of what this from the sun to the extent of the whole diameter our theory, relating to the substance-matters of a of the firmament. In the region of Jupiter, how-system, may establish, as also of what it may ever, flame, laying aside, in a gradual manner, give the negative to, in order that it may be mainthis emulation, appears more serene and clear, tained or overthrown. It denies that vulgar not so much from its proper nature, (as the planet opinion, that flame is air ignited, by affirming that Venus, she being more sparkling,) but from being those two bodies, air and flame, are clearly heteless moved and excited by the nature spread rogeneous, like water and oil, sulphur and meraround him;† in which region it is probable that cury. It negatives that vacuum coacervatum held takes place, which Galileo devised, to wit, that by Gilbert, to obtain among the scattered spheres, the firmament there begins to be studded with but affirms that the spaces are filled with aerial stars, although from their minuteness invisible. or a flamy nature. It denies that the moon is an But, again, in the region of Saturn the nature of aqueous, or a dense, or a solid body, but affirms flame seems to become somewhat languid and that it is of a flamy nature, though it be gentle faint, as being both farther removed from an alli-withal, and weak, being indeed the first rudiment ance with the sun, and exhausted by the neigh- and the last sediment of celestial flame; since bouring constellated firmament. Lastly, a flamy | flame, (according to its density,) no less than air and sidereal nature having overpowered the|and liquids, admits of innumerable degrees. It ethereal nature, gives a constellated firmament establishes that flame, justly and freely posited, composed of an ethereal and sidereal nature, as the globe of the earth is of continent and waters scattered up and down on this side and that side, the ethereal substance being however overruled, * Antiperistasin : epísaσts signifies, generally, 'circumstance: but, in Athen. 1. 5, it also denotes circuitus: al δὲ τῆς περισάσεως θύραι τὸν ἀριθμὸν ἔικοσι οὖσαι, portæ, quæ in circuitu erant, viginti, &c.; therefore, the illustrious author may mean by antiperistasis,' the attractive influ ence of the sun opposed to, and which detains [cohibet] the planets in their orbits. + Or, “from the nature spread around him being less," &c., according as irritata and exasperata are taken in the nomina. tive or ablative case. VOL. I.-53 becomes fixed and subsists, no less than air and water; nor is it a momentary thing, and only successive in its bulk, by renewal and feeding, as is the case here with us. It maintains that flame has a natural tendency to go and collect itself into globes, after the manner of an earthy nature, but not at all like air and water, which are gathered together in orbs and the interstices of globes, but never into perfect globes. It avers that the same flamy nature in the proper place, (that is) in the constellated firmament, is dispersed in infinite round atoms, but yet. in such sort that that twofold principle of pure air and constellation | what rate of conduct it incites and checks itself, be not put off, nor yet flame extended to the heaven and what the nature may be of those influences of heavens. It affirms that stars are real flames, but that the actions of flame in the heavens should in no wise be wrested into a comparison with the actions of flame with us, most of which operate by casualty. It affirms that the ether interspersed among stars, and the stars themselves, have respective relations to air and flame, but sublimated and rectified. And thus, with respect to the substance of the constitution or system of the universe, some such ideas as these have suggested themselves to our mind. which really act upon it. In our progress of unfolding these things, we will refer to computations and tables, that beautiful mathematical dogma, (that all motions are restrained to circles, perfect, or eccentric, or concentric,) and that high flown dictum, (that the earth is, in respect of the firmament, like a point of no magnitude,) and many more feigned discoveries of astronomers. But, first, we will divide the heavenly motions: some are cosmici, others, ad invicem. Those we call cosmici, which the heavenly bodies acquire from the consent not only of the heavens, but of the universe: those ad invicem, in which some heavenly bodies depend on others: and this is a true and necessary division. On the supposition, then, of the earth standing still, (for that, at present, appears to us the truer hypothesis,) it is manifest that the heavens are carried round by a diurnal motion, the measure of which motion is the space of twenty-four hours, or thereabouts; and, consequently, the revolution is from east to west, upon certain points, (which they call poles,) south and north: moreover, the heavens are not whirled round movable poles, nor, back again, are the points different from those stated: and this motion verily seems in harmony with universal nature, and therefore sole, except as far as We must now speak of the motions of the heavenly bodies, on account of which we have adduced these premises. It appears reasonable to suppose that rest is not excluded from nature as to any whole, (for we are not now discoursing of small parts.) This (waiving logical and mathematical subtleties) is mainly evident from the fact, that the inciting causes, and the velocities of the heavenly motions, gradually slacken themselves, as tending to ultimate cessation, and because that, even the heavenly bodies partake of rest, hard by the poles, and because, if immobility be excluded the system, it is dissolved and dissipated. But, if there be a certain accumulation and mass of matter of an immovable nature, there seems no further room to doubt that it is the globe of the earth; for a dense and close cement-it admits both of decrements and declinations; ing of matter disposes toward a languid and reluctant motion; as, on the contrary, a loose unfolding of it towards a brisk and ready one. And not without reason did Telesius (who revived the philosophy and discussions of Parmenides in a treatise on the principle of cold,) introduce into nature, not, indeed, a co-essentiality and coupling, (which was his wish,) but, however, an affinity and agreement, to wit, on one side, of hot, shining, rare, and immovable, and, on the opposite part, of cold, dark, dense, and immovable, by placing the site of the first harmony in the heavens, of the second on the earth. But, if rest and immobility be conceded, it seems fit that we also suppose a motion without limit and to the uttermost movable, especially in natures opposed to each other. This motion is commonly rotatory, such as is generally found in the heavenly bodies; for, motion in a circle has no termination, and seems to flow from a natural desire of the body, which moves, only that it may move, and follow itself, and seek its own embraces, and excite its nature, and enjoy it, and exercise itself in its proper operation; whereas, a motion in a right line may seem a finite journeying, and a movement to a boundary of cessation or rest, and that it may attain something, and then quietly lay down its motion. Wherefore, respecting that rotatory motion, which motion is true and perennial, and commonly supposed peculiar to the heavenly bodies, we must inquire how it equips itself in the outset, and by according to which decrements and declinations, this motion shoots through every thing movable, and pervades all space, from the constellated firmament even to the very bowels and inmost recesses of the earth; not by any snatched or harassing course, but by perpetual consent; and that motion in the constellated firmament is perfect and entire, as well as to a just measure of time, as by a full restoration of place; but, inasmuch as that motion recedes from the summit of the heavens, insomuch does it become more imperfect, with a reference to its slowness as well as its aberration from a circular motion. And, first, we must speak distinctly of that slowness. We affirm, that the diurnal motion of Saturn is too slow to carry it round, and restore it to the same point in twenty-four hours; but that the starry firmament is carried on quicker, and outstrips Saturn by such an excess, as, in as many days as complete thirty years, would agree with a whole circuit of the heavens. The same is to be said of the rest of the planets, according to the difference of the periodic time of each planet; so that the diurnal motion of the starry firmament (in that same period, without any regard to the magnitude of the circle) is nearly by one hour swifter than the diurnal motion of the moon; for, if the moon could complete its revolution in twenty-four days, then that excess would be one whole hour; wherefore that much talked of motion, in an opposite and contrary direction, from and more nearly resemble circles, but the inferior curves more disjoined and eccentric; for, by descending more and more, there is a perpetual departure both from that prime state of velocity nature nowhere interrupted. In this, however, the planets agree, (as bodies retaining much of a common nature, though in other respects differing,) that they have the same limits of declination. For neither doth Saturn return within the tropics, nor does the moon stray beyond the tropics, (and yet we must not dismiss from our consideration what has been handed down and remarked by some upon the wanderings of the planet Venus,) but all the planets, whether superior or inferior, after their arrival at the tropics, turn themselves, and recommence a course back again, weary of a lesser spiral range, such as they would have to undergo, if they did approach nearer the poles; and dreading that loss of motion as destructive of their nature. For, howsoever it may be, in the starry firmament, both the stars near the poles, and those about the equinoctial, preserve their ranks and positions, reduced into order, one by another, with steadfastness and consummate uniformity; nevertheless, the planets seem to be of that mixed nature, that they admit not willingly an ampler circuit, nor bear at all a shorter. Furthermore, these doctrines concerning the heavenly motions seem to us somewhat preferable to forced and opposite motions, and of a different polarity of the zodiac, and an inverted order of velocity, and such like, which in no way agree with the nature of things, though they may in a manner accord with calculations. Neither have eminent astronomers been blind to these matters, but, wrapped up in their craft, and reveries of perfect circles, catching at subtleties and the evil results of a fashionable philosophy, they have disdained to follow nature. Truly, however, is that despotic decretal against nature of wise men more mischievous, than the very simplicity and utter credulity of the uninformed, when any one, for instance, looks with scorn at truth, because it is manifest. And yet huge is that evil, and most widely extended, that the human intellect, whenever it finds itself unequal to subjects, has a predilection to soar above them. west to east, which is attributed as peculiar to the planets, is not true, but only apparent, from the outstripping of the starry firmament toward the west, and the leaving behind of the planets towards the east, which being granted, it is evi-and that perfect circular motion, by a law of dent that the velocity of that cosmical motion, by an unperturbed law of nature, as it descends, decreases, so that the nearer each planet approaches the earth, the slower it moves; whereas the received opinion overthrows and turns upside down that law; and by attributing a motion of their own to the planets, falls into the absurdity, that the planets, the nearer they are to the earth, (which is, naturally, the place of rest,) in that ratio have their celerity increased; which astronomers, in the most trifling and unsuccessful manner, attempt to excuse, by a relaxation of the force of the primum mobile. But if it seem to any one a matter of wonder, that, in spaces so vast as interpose between the starry firmament and the moon, that motion should gradually decrease by portions so small, by less, to wit, than one hour, which is the twenty-fourth part of the diurnal motion; it subsides when we consider that each planet, the nearer it is to the earth, completes lesser circles, revolving in a shorter circuit; so that, the decrement of the size of the circle being added to the decrement of the periodic time, that motion is perceived to decrease in a marked manner. Up to this time we have spoken of the velocity, absolutely and apart, as if the planets, placed, for example, in the plane of the equator, or of any of its parallels, were simply overtaken by the starry firmament, and by one another, but yet in that selfsame circle; for this would be a mere leaving behind, without any respect to obliquity. But it is manifest, that the planets not only hasten on their course with unequal relative speed, but do not return to the same point of a circle, but decline towards the south and the north, the limits of which declination are the tropics; which declination has produced a circle oblique to us, and its different polarity; after the same manner that that inequality of velocity has caused the motion of an opposite action. Nor really is there need of this figment in the nature of things, since, by introducing spiral lines, (the thing that comes nearest to sense and fact,) the matter in dispute may be settled, and those points be safe and sound. Besides, (which is the sum and substance of the matter,) these spirals are nothing else than deviations from a perfectly circular motion, which the planets cannot bear; for in proportion as the substances degenerate in purity and expansion, so also do their motions. But it happens, that as in point of celerity the higher planets are carried on quicker, and the inferior slower; so, also, that the superior planets form spires that approximate* But now we must inquire whether that one and simple motion in a circle, and in a spiral curve, from east to west, upon certain south and north poles, cease and terminate with the heavens, or it also be conveyed down to things beneath. For it would not be ingenuous in us to feign here in this nether region such aphorism as they suppose with respect to the heavens. Wherefore, if in these regions be also found that motion, it if the illustrious author did write propiores, why did he after* Propiores, if not misprinted for propriores, must respect wards tautologize by saying "quæque circulos propius refe the foci of the ellipses; which explains "disjunctas:" but, | rant ?" astronomers shape new and, as they suppose, corrected theories, and adapt causes eternal and invariable to things more frequently, as it were, fortuitous. The second is, that those turbulent actions of compression, expansion, resistance, and yielding, which seem to be produced by a certain softness and hardness of bodies, taken for elementary qualities, are not compatible with the heavens, which is doubtless of the fifth and least elementary essence. But this assertion is a presumptuous and arbitrary reprobation of things and sense. For wheresoever any body in nature is in a state of rest, there also is a reluctance to change, and that in proportion to the size of the body. But wherever are natural bodies, and a local motion, there will take place either repulsion, or a yielding, or resolution of motion;* for those things which have been named compactness, looseness of parts, resistance, a giving way, with many others, are what matter universally undergoes will appear that, even in the heavens, it is of like | Indeed, from this source proceeds that prodigious kind, according to a nature common or cosmical, evil, that, on the appearance of every irregularity with that we experience. In the first place, then, it is plainly evident, that it is not confined to the limits of the heavens. But the demonstrations and proofs of this matter we have fully laid down in our anticipation respecting the flowing and ebbing of the sea; therefore, to that we refer; and this being supposed and taken for granted, we will proceed to the rest of the heavenly motions. But these we have said are not cosmical, but reciprocal. There are four kinds of motions visible in the heavens, besides that which we have called cosmical, which is a diurnal motion in curves within the tropics. For either the stars are raised higher, and again depressed lower, as they may be farther from and nearer to the earth; or they bend and wind themselves through the latitude of the zodiac, by running out more to the south, or more to the north, and by traversing what they call the dragons; or they vary from an incited and also an acquisitive motion, (for we join together these two,) advancing sometimes quicker, sometimes slower, everywhere. Yet, however, from this source sometimes progressively, sometimes retrogressively, sometimes even stopping and staying; or at a certain distance from the sun, they are more or less bound together and drawn round each other. We will recount the causes and natures of these only, generally touching the heads of each; for our present undertaking requires that to be done in this place. But in order to this, and to secure beforehand, as well as to open the way, we must frankly declare our sentiments upon some of the maxims of philosophers, as also upon certain hypotheses of astronomers, as well as their observations during several ages, out of which materials they built up their mysteries; all which things appear to us to be full of error and confusion. Wherefore there are axioms, or rather certain conceits, which, received by philosophers, and transferred to astronomy, and unfortunately being credited, have corrupted the science. Our rejection of them will be simple, as well as our judgment upon them; for it is not suitable to waste precious time on silly refutations. The first of these is, that all things above the moon inclusively are incorruptible; and in no degree or form whatever do they undergo new beginnings or changes; of which it has been said elsewhere, that it is a fond and silly saying. *The twelve signs of the zodiac, I presume; so called because most of them resemble some living creature; thus, Eurip., in Oreste, has ApakovTwdns, draconibus, seu angui. bus plenus ;" or it may mean the two nodes, which comes to the same thing, represented by the head and the tail of the Dragon; for, the ascending node and Dragon's head have the same character to denote each, (;) so, likewise, the descending node and Dragon's tail (.) + Consecution, used by Newton; does it mean 'picked up on its revolution,' or an orderly accompanying, &c.; a relative motion; or a train of consequential motion, incitatio referring to original? have come down to us all that multiplicity of orbits capriciously jumbled together, which, nevertheless, they are pleased to say are so distinctly interlineated, and which move and turn within each other so evenly and glibly, that, notwithstanding their intricacy, there is no entangling or vibration; all which are visionary and a palpable mockery of facts. A third is, that to each individual body appertains a peculiar and appropriate motion; and if more motions are observable, all, except one, are extrinsic, and derived from some other moving body. Nothing falser than this can be conceived, since all bodies, from the manifold consent of things, are endued with even many motions, some denoting their nature, others waxing weaker and weaker, others even lying hid until they be drawn forth; but there are no special or proper motions of things, except the exact measures and ratios of common motions. And hence again has been presented to us that primum mobile severed and made distinct, and heavens on heavens, and new. fangled mansions contained in them, that they may suffice for the performances of so many different motions. The fourth is, that all heavenly motions are distributed through perfect circles; which is a very cumbrous doctrine, and has produced to us those monsters of eccentric curves and epicycles; whereas, however, had they consulted nature, a regulated and uniform motion belongs to a perfect circle; but a motion, regulated, indeed, but of * Sectio means, classically, a confiscation of goods, division of spoil, &c., so, possibly, here it may mean dissipation of motion; if the illustrious author uses it here for secutio, (a sequor,) then it means an "orderly following," (consequentia enakoλovonnis,) but such a word in such a sense is utterly unclassical. |