(C.) MODERN. 1. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN. Francis Bacon, 1561. The great reformer of philosophical methods, especially in physics. His Novum Organum Scientiarum and De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum are his most memorable philosophical works. Hobbes, 1588. The metaphysical philosophy of Hobbes, always bold and original, often acute and profound, struck deep root in the minds of reflecting men, and has influenced more extensively the general tone of speculation. In nothing does he deserve more credit than in having set an example of close observation in the philosophy of the human mind.—Hallam. 5 vols. 8vo, $16 00. Cudworth, 1617. He is celebrated for his grand work, "The True Intellectual System of the Universe," a work of great power and erudition, although the attachment of the author to the Platonism of the Alexandrian school has led him to advance some opinions which border on incomprehensibility and mysticism.-Enc. Am. In the estimation of Sir J. Mackintosh, Locke's Essay still stands the most conspicuous landmark in the progress of metaphysical philosophy for the last two centuries. He adds, "If Locke made few discoveries, Socrates made none; yet both did more for the improvement of the understanding, and not less for the progress of knowledge, than the authors of the most brilliant discoveries." 8vo, $3 00. Shaftesbury, 1671. He was the first philosopher who propounded the theory of a moral sense in ethics, and by him that term was first introduced. Samuel Clarke, 1675. A profound metaphysician, who made virtue to consist in a conformity with the essential relations of things. He wrote against Leibnitz and Hobbes, and was the friend of Newton. Berkeley, 1684. The works of this great metaphysician are, beyond dispute, the finest n odels of philosophical style since Cicero. Perhaps they surpass those of the great orator in the wonderful art by which the fullest light is thrown on the most minute and evanescent parts of the most subtle of human conceptions. -Sir J. Mackintosh. 8vo, $2 50. Butler, 1692. He was the first to vindicate the disinterested nature of our affections. His sermons on Human Nature, as well as his great work, "The Analogy," are full of profound remarks and suggestions. Edwards, 1703. The metaphysician of America. His power of subtle argument, perhaps unmatched, certainly unsurpassed among men, was joined, as in some of the ancient mystics, with a character which raised his piety to fervour. He composed two famous works: "On the Freedom of the Will," and "On the Origin of Sin." The first is his master-piece, and worthy of the powers of Locke.-Sir J. Mackintosh. 2 vols. 8vo, $12 00. Hartley, 1705. His fame as a philosopher and a man of letters depends on his work, "Observations on Man." He exhibits the outlines of connected systems of physiology, mental philosophy, and theology. The doctrine of association which he adopted and illustrated explains many phenomena of intellectual philosophy.-Enc. Am. 8vo, $2 50. Reid, 1710. His doctrine of the immediate or intuitive knowledge of mind and matter, which involved the overthrow of the ideal system, and the skepticism deduced from it, was an important step in the progress of philosophy.-Enc. Am. 2 vols. 8vo, $5 50. Hume, 1711. Notwithstanding some considerable defects, his proof from induction of the beneficial tendency of virtue, his conclusive arguments for disinterestedness, and his decisive observations on the respective provinces of reason and sentiment in morals, concur in ranking his Enquiry with the ethical treatises of the highest merit in our language.-Sir J. Mackintosh. 2 vols. 8vo, $4 00. Adam Smith, 1723. Perhaps there is no ethical work, since Cicero's Offices, of which an abridgment enables the reader so inadequately to estimate the merit as the "Theory of Moral Sentiments." This is chiefly owing to the variety of explanations of life and manners which embellish the book, often more than they illuminate the theory.-Sir J. Mackintosh. Hutchinson, 1729. He gave full development to the system indicated by Shaftesbury and Butler. His earliest work was an "Inquiry into our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue;" his last, a "System of Moral Philosophy." Priestley, 1733. As a metaphysician, his elucidation of Hartley's theory of association, his works upon philosophical necessity, and upon materialism, will always ensure attention.-Enc. Am. Paley, 1743. The practical bent of his nature is visible in the language of his writings, which, on practical matters, is as precise as the nature of the subject requires, but in his rare and reluctant efforts to rise to first principles, becomes indeterminate and unsatisfactory; though no man's composition was more free from the impediments which hinder a writer's meaning from being quickly and clearly seen. His style is as near perfection in its kind as any in our language.-Sir J. Mackintosh. 6 vols. 8vo, $5 00. Bentham, 1749. His "Letters on Usury" are perhaps the best specimens of the exhaustive discussion of a moral and political question, leaving no objection, however feeble, unanswered, and no difficulty, however small, unexplained; remarkable, also, for the clearness and spirit of the style, for the full expression which suits them to all intelligent readers, for the tender and skilful hand with which prejudice is touched, and for his admirable apology of projectors.-Sir J. Mackintosh. Stewart, 1753. It would be difficult to name works in which so much refined philosophy is joined with so fine a fancy; so much elegant literature with such a delicate perception of the distinguishing excellences of great writers; and with an estimate, in general, so just of the services rendered to knowledge by a succession of philosophers. They are pervaded by a philo sophical benevolence, which keeps up the ardour of his genius, without disturbing the serenity of his mind.-Sir J. Mackintosh. 7 vols. 8vo, $8 50. Mackintosh, 1765. He is eminent as a jurist, a statesman, and a writer, equally distinguished for his extensive learning, his large views, and his liberal principles in law, politics, and philosophy. He is the author of a celebrated review (Edinburgh Review, vols. xxvii. and xxxvi.) of Stewart's Discourse on the Progress of Metaphysical Science, and of a Discourse on the Progress of Ethical and Political Science, published separately. In this last he brings out an ethical system of his own, somewhat peculiar, in which he makes conscience a secondary principle.-Enc. Am. 4to, 1830. Ethical Philosophy, 8vo, $2 00. Brown, 1778. His speculative philosophy involves many radical inconsistencies, and would hardly deserve to be mentioned in so general a sketch, were it not remarkable as an open revolt against the Scotch system at the moment the latter seemed to be developed with new power, and to acquire new authority on the European Continent, and for the temporary popularity it possessed in Great Britain, and particularly in this country.-Enc. Am. 2. GERMAN. Leibnitz, 1646. He was in favour of rationalism in the sense in which it was manifested by Plato, and the system of demonstration, which prevented him from entirely rejecting the scholastic philosophy. The principal characteristics of his philosophy are a peculiar theory of knowledge, the doctrine of monadology, and the doctrine of optimism.-Enc. Am. The most complete and accurate edition of his works was published by Lewis Dutens, Geneva, 1768, 6 vols. 4to. Wolff, 1679. He was in general but a continuator of the philosophy of Leibnitz, adding less to it in the way of substance than of form. Kant, 1724. Besides the great merit of Kant in regard to intellectual phi losophy, we owe him much for his views of virtue and inflexible morality, which he placed again on their true elevated basis, after they had been referred exclusively to interest by others. To the inquirer into his philosophy, we would say, that he should be careful not to reject immediately what he cannot understand, and ought not expect to understand without deep study and strict mental discipline.-Enc. Am. A very good enumeration of his works is to be found in Cousin's Manuel de l'Histoire de la Philosophie, traduit de l'Allemand de Tenneman, Paris, 1829, 2 vols. Mendelsohn, 1729. A celebrated Jewish philosopher. He established no new system, but was, nevertheless, one of the most profound and patient thinkers of his age, and the excellence of his character was enhanced by his modesty, uprightness, and amiable disposition. He wrote several philosophical works; his master-piece, "Phædon," or "On the Immortality of the Soul," has been translated into most modern languages.Enc. Am. Jacobi, 1743. His works are rich in whatever can attract elevated souls, yet the opinions respecting him are very different. He has been called the "German Plato," on account of the religious glow in his metaphysical writings. His philosophy, among other traits, is characterized by an aversion to systems, all of which, he maintains, when consistently carried out, lead to fanaticism. His works were published by Fleischer, Leipzig, 6 vols.-Enc. Am. Fichte, 1762. Fichte admitted the absolute existence only of the thinking individual, by which he considered even the objects of thought to be produced; he denied the reality of an exterior world. This system atoned for its exclusive character by the high standard to which this vigorous spirit raised the moral dignity of man.-Enc. Am. Krug, 1770. Krug has written a great deal on philosophical and political subjects; he has united all the principal doctrines of Kant systematically, in transcendental synthetics.—Enc. Am. Fries, 1773. He was distinguished for the moral tendency of his philosophy. He published at Heidelberg, in 1807, his New Cri |