defined or limited by gender. That idea is left out altogether, and is indeed foreign to a true personal pronoun; but when we come to the third person we have to do with all three genders, and we have to make use of the demonstrative pronoun he, she, it.

60. The neuter form was originally hit, and his was the possessive of the neuter as well as of the masculine. Its, which is now used as the genitive case of the neuter, is found in Lev. xxv, 5, and occasionally in Shakspere, but is a modern word unknown to the original language.

This, That, Yon, Yonder.

This, plural these, points to the nearer object.
That, plural those, to the more remote.

Yon, yond, yonder, has the same force as that, those. In Anglo-Saxon yond is used only as an adverb.

62. The, which by some is called the definite article, is really a demonstrative pronoun, from the primitive pe (the), seo, thaet, and is used (1) to emphasize, (2) to localize, (3) to classify, (4) to compare, (5) with adjectives when they stand alone :

1. Behold the man.

2. The Haven where they would be.

3. The English, the French, the birds.

4. The more a man has the more he wants.
5. The good die young, the beautiful, the brave.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS

63. Relative Pronouns are those which are used instead of their antecedent nouns, not merely to avoid repeating them, but as subjects or objects of dependent sentences. In the

sentence "I saw the man and spoke to him," him is simply a word used to save the repetition of man; but in the sentences "I saw the man who called on me yesterday," or "I saw the man whom you met yesterday," who and whom represent the noun man in a new connection, and so are, as far as case goes, independent of man, each with its own particular government.

64. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, whether.

Of these, who, what, and that, are simply relative, but which is distinctive as well as relative.

We say,

1. The man whom (or that) I saw.

2. The man which (of all men) I saw.

3. She wore the dress which (of all her dresses) was the plainest.

65. Thus, too, in the Lord's Prayer it is not " our Father who art in heaven," for that would merely state the fact that our Father, God, is in heaven; but it is "our Father which art in heaven". -our Father, that is, which of all fathers is the one that dwells in heaven.

Which, therefore, may be said to particularize one of a class, who and that merely refer to the individual man or thing per se.

66. Which is sometimes treated as the neuter of who, but what is the proper neuter, though now used as an interrogative adjective with nouns of various genders: as, What man is he that lusteth to live? What is in its relative sense generally used as a substantive: as, This is what I wished; I see what you see. It is undeclined, as also is whether which of two.

=

67. That, too, is undeclined, and of all genders. The man that I saw, the woman that loved, the bird that I shot, the gate that I shut.

69. The interrogative pronouns are merely the relative in a different connection.

whether.

They are who, what, which,

70. Who is used substantively: as,

Who is he that calls the dead?-Byron.
Whose is this image and superscription?

71. What and which are used both as substantives and adjectives: as,

What is the existence of man's life,

But open war or slumbered strife ?—King.
What sound is this that we hear?

Which is the right road?

Which road shall I take?

72. Whether is rapidly falling out of use, but we read in St. Matthew,

Whether is greater, the gold or the temple?

So in the Acts,

73.

Show whether of these two thou hast chosen.

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

Some, any, one, none, no, aught, naught, other.

74. Some is used either as a substantive (always in the plural), or as an adjective.

75. Any (Anglo-Saxon ænig; Old English any, eny).

76. One (compare French on

One hears, one sees.

homme).

Oh, that one would give me to drink of the water of the well

of Bethlehem.-1 Chronicles.

One has a genitive case.

None, no, used both as singular and plural.

77. Aught (Anglo-Saxon â-viht, âht; Old English aught).

Naught (Anglo-Saxon nâvight, nâht; Old English naught), sometimes spelled ought and nought.

78. Other (Anglo-Saxon oder), used as adjective and substantive, with plural others. It is frequently joined with the distributive pronouns each and every, and used too in contrast with some.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.

79. Each, every, either, neither, several, sundry.

Each (Anglo-Saxon aelc; Old English ilk, eche). When many things are spoken of, but with a special reference to their individual action or relation, we use each, and that too with plural words.

Ful oft a day han thilke Thebanes two

Togeder met, and wrought eche other wo:

Unhorsed hath eche other of hem twey.-Chaucer.

80. Every, Anglo-Saxon aefre, ever, and aelc; Old English ever aelc, from everilk. While each picks out the individual, every treats that individual as part of a whole; thus, each and every man would mean every man by himself, but still one of a whole number.

In every thing there lieth measure.-Chaucer.

81. Either and neither (Anglo-Saxon aegder-i.e., a-ge hväðer; Old English aither), both singular words.

82. Several, with idea of separation, brings before us many persons or things.

83. Sundry is sometimes regarded as a kind of singular to several, and has too the same idea of separation.

84.

THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN, SELF.

Self is the only English reflexive pronoun; its plural is selves (Anglo-Saxon sylf).

Self is found with my, thy, your, &c. as myself, thyself, ourselves, and also as a substantive, as a man's own self. Self is never joined with the subjective case, so that we say, He went himself.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

85. The Possessive Pronouns are mine, thine, ours, yours, his, its, hers, theirs, with the shortened forms, my, thy. Of these, mine, thine, ours, yours, his, its, theirs, are used as substantives, the others as pronominal adjectives: as, this is our land, that is yours. That is my house, this is theirs.

86. The Pronouns are the oldest Parts of Speech, and still preserve for us traces of the inflexions of English, and this in spite of great changes from their original forms. Study of the tables given in 53 will show how compounds were simplified, genders misplaced or exchanged, new combinations formed, and the old forgotten or overlooked.

CHAPTER IV.
ADJECTIVES.

87. Every thing, whether it be a thing of the bodily senses or a thing of the mind, has its name by which it is classified or labelled; but different things, though of the same class, are distinguished from each other by some accidents of quality or quantity, and the fact that those accidents belong to the thing in question is noted and registered in the mind by means of adjectives.

88. An adjective then, is a word used to denote the quality or quantity of any thing, and is attracted into the same number, case, and gender as the noun which names the thing in question-e.g., a fine day; a heavy cloud; a tall boy; great liberality.

89. An adjective is not the name of a quality or quantity, and should not therefore be called a noun; but at the same time it suggests the name, and partakes in some measure of the nature of a noun.

90. An adjective cannot be used without a noun, because you cannot have the quality or quantity of a thing apart from the thing itself. It is possible to have the idea or