hardy bands to take the field, and crowds of active young men appeared, equipped at their own cost, mounted on small but indefatigable horses, and ready to undergo all the hardships of war. Gifted with the individual intelligence which belongs to the pastoral and savage character, and yet subjected to a certain degree of discipline, they were the best light troops in the world, and were more formidable to a retreating army than the bravest of French or Russian dragoons. The population of Russia, in Europe alone, was nearly thirty-five millions, and was increasing at a rate which doubled its numbers in forty years: this supply of inhabitants with the other resources of the Empire, enabled her to bear a distinguished part in the approaching conflict.

Sweden was too remote from the scene of European strife to have much weight in the political scale. She had recently, however, concluded a glorious war with her powerful neighbor, Russia; for her arms, in alliance with the arms of Turkey, had taken the Russian forces by surprise, and Gustavus, her king, extricating himself by a desperate exertion of valor from a perilous situation, had destroyed the Russian fleet and gained a great victory so near to St. Petersburg that the sound of his cannon was heard in the palace of the empress. Catherine hastened to be rid of the Swedish war by offering advantageous terms to her brave antagonist, and flattered him to accept them by representing that the efforts of all sovereigns should now be directed toward resisting the progress of the French Revolution and that he alone was worthy to head the enterprise.

Placed on the other extremity of the Russian dominions, the forces of Turkey were still less capable of affecting the balance of European power: her troops, too, though formidable among their native defences to an invading army, were comparatively inefficient, when removed from their own fields and brought into contact with the better disciplined armies of other European states.

The political importance of Italy had sunk almost as low as that of Turkey. Inhabiting the finest country in Europe-a country blessed with the richest plains and most fruitful mountains, defended from invasion by the encircling sea and the frozen Alps, venerated also from the recollections of ancient greatness and from its containing the cradle of modern freedom-the people of Italy were yet as dust in the scale of nations.

The kingdom of Piedmont, situated on the frontiers of Italy, partook more of the character of its northern than its southern neighbors. Its soldiers, drawn chiefly from the mountains of Savoy, Liguria, or the maritime Alps, were brave, docile and enterprising, and, under Victor Amadeus, had risen to the highest distinction in the beginning of the 18th century. The regular army amounted to thirty thousand infantry and three thousand five hundred cavalry; and the government could, in addition to this, summon to its support fifteen thousand militia who, in defending their mountain passes, rivalled the best troops in Europe. They were chiefly employed during the war in guarding fortresses; and the number of these, joined to the natural strength of the country and its position important as holding the keys of the great passes of the Alps, gave this state a degree of military consequence beyond what could have been anticipated from its mere physical strength.

Sunk in obscure marshes, crushed by the naval supremacy of England, and cooped up in a corner of Europe, Holland had become a compara

tively insignificant power. Its army still consisted of forty thousand men and its fortified towns and means of inundation showed the same ability of defence as had formerly been exerted; but the resolution of the people was far inferior to the strength of their position.

The peasantry of Switzerland, on the other hand, cradled in snowy mountains, tilling a sterile soil and habituated to hardships, exhibited at this time the same characteristics which have always rendered them celebrated in European wars. Their lives were as simple, their courage as undaunted and their patriotism as warm as were those of their ancestors who fell at Morat or Morgarten: but as their troops did not exceed thirtyeight thousand in number, they could take little active part in the great contests that agitated the plains of Europe.

The people of the Spanish Peninsula were able to assume a more distinguished place in the strife for European freedom. This singular and mixed race, united to the tenacity of purpose which marked the Gothic, the fiery enterprise that characterized the Moorish blood: centuries of almost unbroken repose had neither extinguished the one nor abated the other; and Napoleon, at a later day, erroneously judged the temper of her people when he measured it by the inglorious reigns of the Bourbon dynasty. Her national strength had indeed declined, by reason

of the accumulation of estates in the hands of noble families who were degenerated by long-continued intermarriages, and to the predominant influence of the Catholic priesthood: but the courage and prowess of her peasantry were unimpaired and her ability to repel invasion was signally proved in many instances during the war. The nominal military strength of Spain was one hundred and forty thousand men; but this force was far from being effective; and in the first campaigns she was not able to muster eighty thousand combatants.

The forces of France destined to contend with this immense aggregate of military strength, were far from being considerable at the commencement of the struggle. The infantry consisted of one hundred and sixty thousand men, the cavalry of thirty-five thousand, and the artillery of ten thousand. During the first stormy period of the Revolution, the discipline of the troops had declined; and the custom of each man's judging for him. self had introduced into the army a degree of license wholly inconsistent with military subordination. These defects, however, were speedily remedied under the iron rule of the Convention.

In contemplation of the approaching contest, a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, was concluded on the 7th of February, 1792, between Sweden and Austria; but, it seemed that Providence was preparing a new race of actors for the mighty scenes now to be performed; for Leopold of Austria died on the 1st of March following; and on the 16th of the same month, Gustavus was assassinated at a masked ball.

Leopold was succeeded by his son Francis, then but twenty-four years of age, whose reign was the most eventful, the most disastrous, and ultimately the most glorious in the Austrian annals. His first measures were popular and judicious; Kaunitz was continued as prime-minister, and with him were associated in the cabinet, Marshal Lascy and Count Francis Colloredo. He suppressed those articles in the journals which loaded him with praise, observing, "It is by my future conduct that I am to be judged worthy of praise or blame." When the list of pensioners was submitted to his inspection, he erased the name of his mother,

saying that it was not becoming for her to be dependent on the bounty of the state.

The

Hitherto, Great Britain had observed a strict neutrality toward France, but the progress of events soon forced her to a change of policy. 10th of August came; the French throne was overturned; the royal family imprisoned; and the massacres of September stained Paris with blood. In the frenzy of their democratic fury, and intoxicated with success, the Revolutionary party adopted measures incompatible with the peace of other states. A Jacobin club of twelve hundred members was established at Chamberry, in Savoy, and one hundred of its most active individuals were selected as travelling missionaries "armed with the torch of reason and liberty, for the purpose of enlightening the Savoyards on their regeneration and imprescriptible rights." An address was voted by this club to the French Convention as "legislators of the world," and received by them on the 20th of October, 1792. They ordered it to be translated into the English, Spanish and German languages. The rebellious Savoyards next formed a Convention, in imitation of that of France, and offered to incorporate themselves with the great Republic. The French Convention promptly accepted the proffered dominion of Savoy, and united it to the Republic under the name of the Department of Mont Blanc. The seizure of Savoy was followed by that of Nice with its territory, and Monaco; these were styled the Department of the maritime Alps. Italy was the next object of attack, and Piedmont the first point assailed. To facilitate the work, a French fleet cast anchor in the Bay of Genoa, and a Jacobin club was established in that city. Kellerman, on assuming the command of the army of the Alps, informed his soldiers that he "had orders to conquer Rome, and the orders should be obeyed." The French ambassador at Rome was in the mean time so active in urging the people to insurrection, that, when proceeding in his carriage to one of his conferences, he was seized by the mob, at whom he had discharged a pistol, and was murdered in the streets. Switzerland, too, and the smaller German principalities, were subjected to insult or sequestration. Finally, on the 19th of November, a decree was unanimously passed by the Convention, which openly placed the French Republic at war with all established governments.

These unprecedented and alarming proceedings, joined to the rapid increase and treasonable language of the Jacobin societies in England, excited a general disquietude in that country; and after some time spent in correspondence with the French government, matters were brought to a crisis by the execution of Louis. As there was now no longer even the shadow of a government in the French capital with which to maintain a diplomatic intercourse, the French minister was notified to quit the British dominions within eight days; and on the 3rd of February, 1793, the French Convention declared war against Great Britain.

CHAPTER IV.

CAMPAIGN OF 1792.

AFTER the decision of the Assembly for war, and the forced declaration of Louis to that effect, in April, 1792, three considerable armies were ordered to be formed. In the north, Marshal Rochambeau commanded forty thousand infantry and eight thousand cavalry, cantoned from Dunkirk to Phillipville. In the centre, La Fayette was stationed with fortyfive thousand infantry and seven thousand cavalry, from Phillipville to Lautre; while Marshal Luckner, with thirty-five thousand infantry and eight thousand cavalry, observed the course of the Rhine from Bale to Lauterburg. In the south, General Montesquieu, with fifty thousand men, was charged with the defence of the line of the Pyrenees and the course of the Rhone. But these armies, however formidable their numbers may sound, were as yet very inefficient, as the license of the Revolution had impaired their discipline, and destroyed their respect and confidence in their commanders.

To oppose these forces, however, the allies made but an indifferent demonstration. Fifty thousand Prussians and sixty-five thousand Austrians and Hessians were all that could at first be mustered at various points for the invasion of France.

Encouraged by the inconsiderable Austrian force in the Low Countries, the French resolved to invade Flanders in four columns, and on the 28th of April, 1792, put themselves in motion; but in every direction they were routed by the Austrians at the first onset, so that the corps destined to advance to Furnes fell back on hearing of these reverses, and General La Fayette judged it prudent to suspend the movement of his whole army and retire to his camp at Rancennes.

The extreme facility with which this invasion of Flanders was repelled, astonished all Europe. The Prussians conceived the utmost contempt for their new opponents, and it is curious to recur to the sentiments they expressed on the occasion. "Do not buy too many horses," said the minister Bischoffswerder, to several officers of rank; "the farce will not last long; the army of lawyers will soon be annihilated."

The Jacobins and war party at Paris, though extremely disconcerted by these disasters, had the address to conceal their apprehensions, and denounced the severest penalties against the real or supposed authors of the national disgrace. Energetic measures were taken to reënforce the armies. Rochambeau was dismissed and Luckner ordered to take his command and resume offensive operations. But this feeble and irresolute old man was ill qualified to restore the confidence or efficiency of the army. He was defeated in his first movement, and at the same time La Fayette met with a signal overthrow. These events naturally increased the presumption of the allies, and rendered them indifferent about pressing o with energy to strike a decisive blow. The Duke of Brunswick, who was intrusted with the command of the allied army, was alone adequately impressed with the importance of the campaign, and strongly urged the necessity of hastening their operations before the French could recover from their discomfiture and alarm.

On the 25th of July, the King of Prussia joined the army, and on the same day the proclamation, already referred to in Chapter II., was issued in the name of the Duke of Brunswick; though it was not drawn up by him, and he strenuously denounced its impolicy. On the 30th of July, the whole army broke up and entered the French territory.

A triple barrier defended the eastern frontier of France, and the line of march proposed by the allies lay through the centre of the chain: there were but three fortresses on this line, Sedan, Longwy and Verdun, all at that time in a wretched condition, after which nothing but fertile plains interposed between the invaders and Paris. Under these circumstances, a powerful attack and rapid advance seemed the most prudent and effectual means of terminating the campaign; and so it must have proved, had the allies displayed an energy adequate to the emergency. They advanced, indeed, but with inexplicable slowness and timidity; took the fortress of Longwy after a three days' siege, received intelligence of the flight of La Fayette from his army, and at the end of six days invested Verdun. This fortress capitulated on the 2nd of September. Sedan and the forest of Argonne in its neighborhood were now the only impediments on the road to Paris. But the successes of the allies, great in effect, though trivial as military achievements, only increased their inactivity. They lingered around Verdun until Dumourier, who was dispatched from the Assembly to take command of the army, had occupied Sedan and the passes of the forest with twenty-five thousand men. But though a golden opportunity was thus wantonly thrown away, the allies displayed more activity and military conduct in the sequel.

As it was now impossible to pursue his original line of advance or dislodge Dumourier by an attack in front, the Duke of Brunswick moved a part of his forces to Landres in order to turn the left of the French position. This compelled Dumourier to detach a portion of his right wing (which occupied the Croix au Bois, one of the five passes of the forest,) in order to reenforce his left; when Clairfait, finding the defences of the Croix au Bois thus weakened, pushed on with a strong body of allies and made himself master of the pass: by this means, the allies were enabled to threaten the rear of the French and disturb their communications with the capital. Dumourier was now forced to retreat with a part of his army to St. Ménéhould; but he still held the two most important passes of the Argonne (Islettes and Chalade,) and France had gained time to bring new forces into the field. Dumourier fortified his position at St. Ménéhould, and was soon joined by two considerable auxiliary armies under Kellerman and Bournonville, which raised the numbers and confidence of the Republicans to a footing of equality with the invaders.

The Duke of Brunswick, after learning the movements of Dumourier, put his troops in motion, advanced through the unguarded defiles of the forest, and took post between the French army and Paris. The hostile forces were now in a singular position: the allies faced toward the Rhine, with their rear on Champagne; while the French rear was at the forest of Argonne, and their front toward their own capital. An action immediately ensued on the field of Valmy, in which the allies had the advantage, but they did not follow it up, and the contending parties withdrew at nightfall to their original positions. But it is with an invading army as with an insurrection; an indecisive action is equivalent to a defeat. This affair was merely a cannonade; the loss on both sides did not exceed