Solentifle Association. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. January 9.-Fifty-fourth regular meeting. Professor Martin in the chair. Thirty members present. Papers read: Five Minutes on the Solar Spectrum, by H. A. ROWLAND. Note on Auroras, by H. F. REID. A Notation for Binary Arithmetic and its Use, by W. E. STORY. February 9.-Fifty-fifth regular meeting. Professor Martin in the chair. Thirty-five members present. Papers read: On the Dynamic Theory of Diffraction, by H. A. ROWLAND. On an Infusorian recently observed in Baltimore Water, by C. S. DOLLEY. (Abstract on p. 60). Resumé of Some Recent Work on the Brain, by H. H. DONALDSON. Philological Association. January-Firty-first regular meeting. Professor Gildersleeve in the chair. Thirtythree members present. - Papers read: On a Proposed Edition of the Kauçika-sutra of the Atharva Veda. (Position of the text in Vedic literature; contents and materials for the edition), by M. BLOOMFIELD. (Abstract on p. 52). On the Rights of a Greek Metropolis over its Colonies, by C. D. MORRIS. (Abstract on p. 55). Notes on the Sinaitic and Vatican Codices, by J. R. HARRIS. (Abstract on p. 56). February 1.-Fifty-second regular meeting. Professor Gildersleeve in the chair. Thirty-seven members present. Papers read: Township Organization in the West, by E. M. HAINES. This was an informal lecture, explaining how township organization was introduced and how it is maintained in certain Western States. Mr. Haines codified township laws after the model of those of New York for Illinois, Michigan, and Minnesota, with digests of judicial decisions on local government, and blank forms for local officials arranged in connection with the statutory law. His lecture represented the life-work of an institutional pioneer. Review of Kaufman's "Communism and Socialism," by R. T. ELY. The Study of Calendars, by J. S. FISHER. Bacon's Rebellion, by M. E. B. ROBERTS. February 15.-Dr. H. B. Adams in the chair. Indian Institutions, by J. W. POWELL. This was a lecture upon Indian sociology, showing the relation of kinship, family, clan, and tribe to the constitution of the Indian state and federation. Much emphasis was laid upon Indian customs, e. g, marriage, the unwritten law of tribal councils, the election of chiefs, religious ceremonies, &c. The attention of the students was called to this inviting field of American institutional history. The Nisus Formitivus in Sane and Insane minds, by G. STANLEY HALL. Review of a recent paper on the Origin of Death, by H. H. DONALDSON. Dr. G. Stanley Hall was elected President of the Club. Archæological Society. February 9.-Meeting for organization. President Gilman in the chair. A form of constitution for the society was presented and adopted. (See p. 50). Dr. A. Emerson was elected Recording Secretary, and Dr. A. L. Frothingham, Jr., Corresponding Secretary of the Society. February 16-First general meeting. Professor Gildersleeve in the chair. Forty-eight persons present. Papers presented: The study, past and present, of Christian Archaeology, and the prospects of the Archæological Society, by A. L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr. The study of Archæology and Art is of the greatest importance for history, and for a proper understanding of the religion, laws, and customs of past ages. Christian Art from the Catacombs to the Renaissance gives a true picture of Christian society. The Archæological Society intends to devote its attention to the Art of all nations and periods. The Spread of the Study of Classical Archæology among civilized nations and the Work of this Society, by ALFRED EMERSON. Since the first discoveries of antiques in Italy and Greece, but notably since Italy accomplished her national unity and Greece her independence, these countries have shown a strong interest in the preservation and study of their ancient monuments. Other countries, not the direct heirs of antiquity, have been equally assiduous. The expeditions sent out from England have made the British Museum the greatest extant repository of Greek art. France, to whom the foundations of our topographica! knowledge of classic lands are due, was foremost also in establishing an exploring station and school of archaeology in Athens, an example followed by Germany, America, and Great Britain. Germany is now the most active country. America bids fair to take a worthy place among these nations. Address: The Archæology of the Aboriginal Races of the United States, by Maj. J. W. POWELL, Director of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology. Baltimore Naturalists' Field Club. November 26.-Communications: The Life History of the Bag-Worm (Thyridopteryx Ephemeræformis), by O. LUGGER. The Conditions which Influence Autumnal Leaf-Coloring, by B. W. BARTON. The Rocks between the Relay Station and Ellicott City, by E. B. SANGER. January 16.-Communications: A List of the Coleoptera found in the Neighborhood of Baltimore, by O. LUGger. This list is the result of eight years' careful collecting by Mr. Lugger, and includes 72 families, 565 genera, and 2291 species. The Collection of Parasitic Fungi, by W. TRELEASE. The Occurrence of Mineral Phosphate of Lime (Apatite) in Canada and its Use as a The apatite is found in the Greenville gneisses of the Laurentian rocks, and occurs in both veins and beds. It is often met with in the form of crystals, some of which are of enormous dimensions, one which was measured being as much as 59 inches in circumference. The crude material is treated with sulphuric acid and converted into a soluble acid phosphate which is used as an artificial manure. The exportation from the port of Montreal for 1883 amounted to 19,000 tons. The Minerals of the Jones Falls Gneiss Quarries, by W. S. BAYLEY. Martin and Moale's Handbook of Vertebrate Dissection, part 3; Hall and Hartwell's Bilateral Asymmetry of Function;-Methods of THE NEW BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY, Diagrams showing the Arrangement of the Rooms, MODERN PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES: An Address by Professor Martin, CHESAPEAKE ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY: Report of the Director, 1876-83, Roll of Members of Laboratory, List of Papers Published, Studies from the Biological Laboratory, PUBLIC LECTURES, PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, 73 74 74 75 75 76 76 77 77 78 78 79 80 81 83 83 The Johns Hopkins University Circulars are printed by Messrs. JOHN MURPHY & CO., 182 West Baltimore Street, Baltimore, from whom single copies may be obtained. They may also be procured, as soon as published, from Messrs. CUSHINGS & BAILEY, No. 262 West Baltimore Street, Baltimore. 323-A. JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. Opened for Instruction in 1876. The Johns Hopkins University was founded by the munificence of a citizen of Baltimore, Johns Hopkins, who bequeathed the most of his large estate for the establishment of a University and a Hospital. It was intended that these institutions should coöperate in the promotion of medical education. The Hospital buildings are approaching completion. The foundation of the University is a capital, in land and stocks, estimated in value at more than $3,000,000; the capital of the Hospital is not less in amount. The University was incorporated under the laws of the State of Maryland, August 24, 1867. Power to confer degrees was granted by the Legislature in 1876. Suitable buildings have been provided in Baltimore at the corner of Howard and Little Ross Sts., and are furnished with the necessary apparatus and books. ACADEMIC STAFF, 1883-4. DANIEL C. GILMAN, LL. D., President of the University. CHARLES D. MORRIS, A. M., Collegiate Professor of Latin and IRA REMSEN, M. D., PH. D., Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Chemical Laboratory. HENRY A. ROWLAND, PH. D., Professor of Physics and Director of the Physical Laboratory. J J. SYLVESTER, F. R. S., D. C. L., Professor of Mathematics. JOHN S. BILLINGS, M. D., Lecturer on Municipal Hygiene. JAMES BRYCE, D. C. L, Lecturer on Roman Law. J. THACHER CLARKE, Lecturer on Classical Archæology, HIRAM CORSON, A. M, LL. D., Lecturer on English Literature. G. STANLEY HALL, PH. D., Lecturer on Psychology. J. RENDEL HARRIS, A. M., Lecturer on New Testament Greek. H. VON HOLST, PH. D., Lecturer on History. GEORGE S. MORRIS, A. M., PH. D., Lecturer on the History of CHARLES S. PEIRCE, A. M., S. B., Lecturer on Logic. erature. WILLIAM TRELEASE, S. B., Lecturer on Botany. CHARLES S. HASTINGS, PH. D., Associate Professor of Physics A. MARSHALL ELLIOTT, A. M., Associate in Romance Languages. RICHARD T. ELY,PH. D. Associate in Political Economy. PHILIP R. UHLER, Associate in Natural History. GEORGE H. WILLIAMS, PH. D., Associate in Mineralogy. CHARLES F. RADDATZ, Examiner in German. G. THEODORE DIPPOLD, PH. D., Instructor in German. EDWARD M. HARTWELL, M. D., PH. D., Instructor in Physical Culture. HUGH NEWELL, Instructor in Drawing. HENRY A. TODD, A. B., Instructor in Romance Languages. EDWARD H. SPIEKER, PH. D., Assistant in Latin and Greek. PLAN OF THE CIRCULARS. The Johns Hopkins University Circulars are published at convenient intervals during the academic year for the purpose of communicating intelligence to the various members of the University in respect to work which is here in progress, as well as for the purpose of promulgating official announcements from the governing and teaching bodies. During the current academic year, successive circulars may be expected in the months of November, January, March, April, May, and June, to be followed at the close of the year by an Index. Although these circulars are designed for the members of the University, they have frequently been called for by institutions and libraries at a distance, and also by individuals who are interested in the literary and scientific activity of this University. Subscriptions and exchanges are therefore received. $2. Terms of SUBSCRIPTION. For the current year, 1883-4, one dollar. For the year 1882-3, (156 pp. in cloth covers), For the years 1880-2, (250 pp. in cloth covers), $5. Subscribers to the Circulars will also receive the Annual Register and Report of the University. All subscriptions should be addressed to the "Publication Agency of the Johns Hopkins University." Communications for the Circulars should be sent in prior to the first day of the month in which they are expected to appear. HOPKINS HALL LECTURES. Notice in Respect to the Admission of the Public. In answer to inquiries, and in correction of some current misapprehensions, the following statements are made in respect to these courses of lectures annually given in the Johns Hopkins University. 1. These courses are academic lectures, designed primarily for the members of the University, and supplementary to the regular class-room work of the students. 2. As the members of the University rarely require the entire room, the Trustees have taken great pleasure in inviting other persons, not connected with the University, to attend. 3. As these lectures are not intended for popular entertainment, but for the instruction of students, those persons first receive tickets, in most cases, who are known to be especially interested in a particular course,-ladies as well as gentlemen. Preference is thus given according to the character of the course, to teachers in other institutions, public and private; students of medicine, law, etc.; professional men and others. 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Single numbers $1.50. II. American Chemical Journal. This journal was commenced in 1879, with Professor Remsen as editor. Five volumes of about 450 pages each have been issued, and the sixth is in progress. It appears bi-monthly. Subscription $3 per year. Single numbers 50 cts. III, American Journal of Philology. The publication of this journal commenced in 1880, under the editorial direction of Professor Gildersleeve. Four volumes of about 570 pages each have been issued, and the fifth is in progress. It appears four times yearly. Subscription $3 per volume. Single numbers $1.00. IV. Studies from the Biological Laboratory. [Including the Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory.] The publication of these papers commenced in 1879, under the direction of Professor Martin, with the assistance of Dr. W. K. Brooks. Two volumes of about 500 pages, octavo, and 40 plates each, have been issued, and the third is in progress. V. Studies in Historical and Political Science. The publication of these papers was begun in 1882, under the editorial direction of Dr. H. B. Adams. The first volume of 470 pages is now completed, and the second is in progress. Subscription $3 per volume. The following publications are also issued by the University: The UNIVERSITY CIRCULARS. Subscription $1 per year. The ANNUAL REPORT presented by the Presi dent to the Board of Trustees reviewing the operations of the University during the past academic NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS. PHILOLOGY. On the Final Sentence in Greek. By B. L. GILDER SLEEVE. [Abstract of a paper read before the University Philological Association, February 1, 1884]. This paper, in the form of a review of a treatise by Philipp Weber, has for its theme the development of the final sentence from Homer to Ionic prose. The importance of such investigations as Weber's is shown, and the regret is expressed that certain points known to advanced students of grammar have not been incorporated into our school text-books, such, for instance, as the essentially poetic use of c final in the classic period. Weber's results are considered, corrected, supplemented, and commented on under the heads of Homer, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns, the Lyric poets, the Dramatic poets, and Ionic prose writers. Among the subjects discussed are the constructions of wc, the relations of hypotaxis and parataxis, the character of the subjunctive, the shift of moods after past tenses of the indicative, the construction of verbs of fear. The character of the paper precludes an adequate presentation of the results in any concise form. In conclusion, the reviewer says: "The final sentence is now, for the first time, presented in its chronological data. One may rebel against calling such work historical syntax, because we have really nothing more than a classification of occurrences, and it is taken for granted throughout, and sometimes, as has been indicated, without reason, that each author represents fully the thesaurus of his time. The personal equation is the great difficulty, and cannot be solved without a theory of the totality of syntactical phenomena in each author. Still such chronological statistics, such records of the behavior of certain particles in certain authors, in certain departments, in certain periods, are of great importance. Without them, a history of Greek syntax is impossible. Without them, a scientific theory of syntactical style is impossible. Without them, it is impossible to understand the course of later Greek, which, after all, has an organic life, though that organic life is of such complexity that even when the mastery of classic syntax is attained, generations of students will find work enough to do in exploring its processes and its diseases. "As soon as the second part of Dr. Weber's treatise reaches us, another study will be consecrated to the subject. Only, as has been said before, the Attic final sentence does not present the same difficulties as the early forms, although we shall have to encounter the troublesome question of the use of ong with subjunctive and future. "In conclusion, a serious gap must be noted in Weber's treatment of the final sentence-the omission of the relative form. While he admits that ows is a relative, he is satisfied with giving Nägelsbach's six forms of the final relative in Homer (p. 64), without any comment except that the one form corresponding to öç KEV Einо is represented only in one passage (I 680), and that the form corresponding to öç κev épei is doubtful (P 144). The study of the moods of the relative ought genetically to have preceded the study of this form of the final sentence. "Yet another form of the final sentence, the future participle, and the important outgrowth & with the future participle, should not have been omitted. The latter construction is one of the most interesting in Greek, and should not be relegated altogether to the domain of oratio obliqua, though oratio obliqua is the only ultimate explanation of it." (Published in the American Journal of Philology, Vol. IV, No. 4). Analogy and Uniformity. By M. W. EASTON, of the University of Pennsylvania. [Abstract of a paper read at the meeting of the University Philological Association, March 7, 1884]. The results of much of the best recent work in etymology hold good only on the basis that the phonetic laws of any one dialect admit of no exceptions. A good statement of this position was given by Brugmann, some time ago (KZ vol. xxiv), together with certain recognized limitations; particularly the recognition of the possible co-existence, for a brief period of time, of younger and older forms. This limitation is not however observed in practice, and even Brugmann himself, in the article quoted, deems it necessary to resort to the hypothesis of borrowing, or of analogical formation, to explain the co-existence of a number of forms fairly to be classed under this head. This is particularly the case in the usual treatment of forms subject to ablaut, as πατέρος and πατρός, intervocalic sigma, etc. The principle is new; for two dialects have been generally defined as characterized simply by a different aggregate of prevailing peculiarities, rather than by single particulars carried through the whole framework of each. Two dialects differ from each other, not merely in their phonetic systems, but still more in the different organization of their meanings, including the different distribution of the functions of their systems of flexion. Such differences of meaning must however have had their start in the period before the divergence from the common mother tongue, and could not have originated had there been a precise, fixed correspondence between vocal symbol and thought. And, in fact, the results of the study of proethnic syntax have failed in detecting such a condition of primitive perfection; rather, we should contemplate, in language, as in other things, a gradual approach to precision and fixed subordination of function. Furthermore, changes of meaning can be conceived only as starting (each) from one individual and propagating themselves by a kind of wave action to the other members of the community. But there is no reason to suppose that, in all cases of alteration, the whole vocabulary of every individual will be affected. Probably this method of change in meaning will find a close parallel in changes of form. The tendency to precision in etymologizing is a laudable, and has proved a fruitful, tendency, but should not assume absolute uniformity in phonetic change. The recorded forms of the Indo-European languages directly oppose such an assumption. Exceptions are indeed explained away by assuming mixture of dialects, and still more frequently by appealing to analogy. No doubt the action of analogy is quite competent to remould a language to any extent, perhaps no word in the whole united vocabulary of the Indo-European tongues has altogether escaped it. But the appeal to analogy is so largely subjective, and so difficult to subject to fixed law, that it can be resorted to to this extent only, when exceptions to well established, probable law are to be disposed of, and even then is often merely of the nature of hypothesis. Absolute uniformity of phonetic processes, e. g., that arέpos and Taтpós could not have existed side by side, the former being a remnant of a primitive formation, is not such a well-established law; nor is it a probable law. We may note here that, if analogy is competent to produce in the later language, and to maintain in use, double forms, it is competent to have maintained them from the first, side by side. But the advocates of uniformity reason as though analogy were, as a disturbing force, quiescent during certain periods of the history of a speech. Now no sufficient explanation of the mechanism, or of a mechanism, by which uniformity throughout a community, or even in the whole vocabulary of single individuals has ever been brought forward. Such a condition of things could be produced only in virtue of a profound alteration of the physiological alphabet, perhaps affecting the whole community at once. This has been clearly seen and clearly defined by Brugmann. But this required condition is mysterious and incomprehensible. The chief altering force known and understood, is the tendency to economize muscular action, and this is intermittent; as a very brief examination of the frequent variation in the pronunciation of our own language soon shows. Uniformity throughout the community, in any degree, is attained, as is well known, by imitation, the new forms spreading from one person to another, and, even here, mainly due to economy, which acts in general to drive out one of two or more synonymous discordant forms. But this process is never complete; that is, the organization of a language is loose. The process is well illustrated by the history of the diffusion of new forms due to analogy; these two are diffused in the same manner, and show, as is universally confessed, the same incompleteness of diffusion. The action of economy is never thoroughgoing. Rhetorical needs, also, check it in modern languages, to a very great extent. Double forms, due to analogy, are indeed, for various reasons, so much more numerous than those due to ordinary phonetic divergence, as to convey the impression of existing in virtue of some special exceptional law. The principle referring the inception of phonetic change to alterations in the physiological alphabet, separates too widely such cases as might possibly fall under it, namely, where sounds entirely disappear from a language, or suffer, in all words, some alteration in mouth position, from all the other, (much more numerous) phonetic differences between cognate dialects, e. g., the changes under Grimm's Law, where a proethnic t becomes d, in certain English words, although t still remains in the language. Compare also the laws of finals. Nor does the simple theory of economy of muscular action fully explain such cases, as is very well known. Perhaps most purely phonetic change may also be referred to the analogy of other words in the language, already containing the new combinations of sounds; thus the inorganic & in av pros may be simply the result of the reminiscence of organic-vop-elsewhere. From this point of view, the inception of new phonetic law may seem a little less mysterious, and additional theoretical reasons found, in virtue of which we may assume it to be probable that complete uniformity will not be attained; all analogy action is confessedly irregular. If, however, it be once admitted that a language may present inconsistent phonetic phenomena, it follows that the reconstruction of mother tongues, and particularly of intermediate mother tongues (general Germanic, general Low German, &c.) is a very uncertain process, because a phonetic law of very limited range may extend itself and become the prevailing law in a group of derived cognate tongues. And, conversely, the deduction of a special form from one existing or hypothetical parent form, with irregularities attributable only to later borrowing, analogy, etc. is correspondingly liable to error. This is true of the relation of the Indo-European family of languages to the primitive tongue. On the Probability of the Existence of Phonetic Law. By M. BLOOMFIELD. [Abstract of a paper read at a meeting of the University Philological Association, March 7, 1884]. The belief in the existence of inviolable phonetic law which according to the extremest view acts like a law of nature cannot at present be freed from the charge of dogmatism (cf. Whitney, Proc. Am. Phil. Ass., 1882, p. xviii; Fr. Müller, Techmer's Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft, I, p. 213). Phonetic action, whatever its cause may be, is crossed by analogy, another powerful factor in linguistic change, which certainly does not act with sufficient regularity to enable us to point out its exact extent, to eliminate it from our count, and to leave a clean balance of phonetic action. It is only by a sense of linguistic taste or tact, qualities confessedly subjective, that the doings of analogy can be scanned; there is nothing inductive about this. Every accepted explanation through analogy is accepted only in so far as the prevailing opinion of the best grammarians holds that the deviation from the path of phonetic law has been thus and thus and not some other way. Moreover the words 'inviolable' or 'infallible' in matters of grammar are always to be deprecated, because the conscious will of the language user certainly stands above phonetic facts. We ought rather to speak of the regularity of phonetic courses, which are never left without some positive causes for deviation. Though the doctrine of phonetic law even in this modified form is a dogma which will never be proved inductively, it can nevertheless be invested with a satisfactory degree of probability. The following are the arguments: 1. No other known theory succeeds in any way in satisfactorily explaining the origin of regular phonetic change on a large scale. There is no point in Whitney's discussions of language which provides satisfactorily for this phenomenon. In two passages of his 'Language and the study of Language' (pp. 95 and 152) he confesses himself unable to account clearly for the most prominent phonetic peculiarities of individual languages, and whatever suggestion these passages do contain is in accord with the theory of phonetic law. Prof. Easton's suggestion (see above) that 'perhaps most purely phonetic change may also be referred to the analogy of other words in the language, already containing the new combinations of sounds' ignores the fact that certain changes and developments of sounds must be phonetic and not analogical because they are of frequent or universal occurrence in widely different languages; furthermore, the regularity of certain phonetic facts (as e. g. Grimm's law when supplemented by Verner's) is in no way disposed of by this assumption. Neither are we likely to be satisfied by Frdr. Müller's parallel between phonetic law and fashion (loc. cit.) 2. Our judgment as to the intrinsic probability of the theory depends upon the extent and the character of the ground which it would cover in the case of its general acceptance. If it be framed to cover a few cases of small scope it falls from its own weakness. If on the other hand it accounts for just those parts of the language-body and language-history which are most scrutable and exposed, and if these form a sufficiently respectable share of the entire mass of the language facts this hypothesis like all others thereby itself becomes a probability. Two facts which show the latter to be true must be borne in mind here. First, there is no language which can be studied historically or comparatively that does not exhibit phonetic facts of sufficiently wide scope to allow us to apply to them the term phonetic law. Secondly, the more incisive the study of any group of languages becomes, the larger grows the number of phonetic laws. On the other hand, it would be impossible to exhibit any language where the phonetic changes either within its own special history or when compared with its kin are exclusively sporadic or arbitrary. Yet nothing would be more natural than just this state of things, providing that nothing but the semi-conscious whim of the individual, aided by his linguistic pet-vice of laziness, originally lay at the bottom of every phonetic change. 3. In the manner in which the principle of phonetic law has accomplished work lies the strongest proof of its reality and its surest hold upon linguistic science. It is obviously beyond the scope of an abstract to point this out, as it would involve a short history of Indo-European, and to some extent Shemitic, grammar within the last few years. It is not too much to say that if the doctrine of the inviolableness of phonetic law should ultimately turn out to be false that this fact would not detract very much from its methodological value; there it has approved itself by its fruits. The Nahuatl-Spanish Dialect of Nicaragua. By A. M. ELLIOTT. [Abstract of a paper read at a meeting of the University Philological Association, March 7, 1884]. The text on which this investigation is based constitutes No. III in the series of Dr. D. G. Brinton's "Library of Aboriginal American Literature" and is published under the title of "The Güegüence, a Comedy Ballet in the Nahuatl-Spanish Dialect of Nicaragua." It is printed from a collation of two MSS. made by Dr. Berendt in 1874, no part of which has ever before With been translated. Both the age and authorship are unknown. reference to the former the able editor thinks we may assign the early portion of the eighteenth century as the latest date for its composition, and there is some evidence that a more remote period is not improbable. The language represents a mischdialekt composed of Nahuatl and Spanish elements, the latter bearing the stamp of the home idiom when it was brought into contact with the aboriginal tongue at the beginning of the sixteenth century, through the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards. The formal conquest of Nicaragua took place in 1522, when it was attached to the Captain Generalcy (Audiencia) of Guatamala, under which rule it remained till the outbreak of the revolution in 1821, thus making three hundred years of steady, uninterrupted Spanish dominion. The Europeans found in Central America the same extraordinary idiom, the Aztec, Nahuatl, or Mexican, which they had learned to know on the vast plain of Anáhuac. This was a language not only of wonderful copiousness and flexibility, but also an extremely polysynthetic speech in which the process of agglutination has the greatest sweep. The linguistic tendencies were thus directly opposed here to the strong analytic development of the Neo-Latin language with which the native idiom was brought into contact by the conquest of Mexico. In sifting the material of this compound product, the resultant of a mixture of two contrary lines of language growth, we must take as our basis the classical Spanish of the time of Cervantes, born just a quarter of a century after the occupation of Nicaragua, with its now obsolete grammar forms and antiquated constructions, and to this add the varying dialect influences which must have been brought to bear on the new product by the common speech of the Spanish soldiers. If we begin with the vowel system, we find the most common differences that separate the Nahuatl from the classic Spanish and bind it with the old and dialect form of the same, to be: ei, oe, 0=a. For example, Velancicos (Sp. villancicos), seno, (Sp. sin) where the i, both tonic and atonic, |