vorable to the developement of his faculties. His father permitted him to read only the Bible and the hymn-book, but an insatiable thirst for learning led him to prosecute his studies in secret. The clergyman of the place employed the boy as a copyist, and soon discovered his talents, and allowed him to participate in the les sons which he gave his own children in Latin and Greek. At this time, young Herder suffered from a serious disease of the eyes, which was the occasion of his becoming better known to a Russian surgeon, who lived in the clergyman's house, and who was struck with the engaging manners and pleasing appearance of the youth. He offered to take Herder with him to Königsberg and to Petersburg, and to teach him surgery gratuitously. Herder, who had no hope of being able to follow his inclinations, left his native city, in 1762; but, in Königsberg, he fainted at the first dissection at which he was present. He now resolved to study theology. Some gentlemen to whom he became known, and who immediately interested themselves in his favor, procured him an appointment in Frederic's college, where he was at first tutor to some scholars, and, at a later period, instructer in the first philosophical and second Latin class, which left him time to study. During this period, he became known to Kant, who permitted him to hear all his lectures gratis. He formed a more intimate acquaintance with Hamann. (q. v.) His unrelaxing zeal and diligence penetrated the most various branches of science, theology, philosophy, philology, natural and civil history, and politics. In 1764, he was appointed an assistant teacher at the cathedral school of Riga, with which office that of a preacher was connected. His pupils in school, as well as his hearers at church, were enthusiastically attached to him, so much that it was thought necessary to give him a more spacious church. His sermons were distinguished by simplicity, united with a sincere devotion to evangelical truth and original investigation. In 1767, he received from Petersburg the offer of the superintendence of St. Peter's school, in that city; but he declined this offer, and even gave up his place at Riga, because he could not resist his inclination to study the arts in their sources, and men on the stage of life. He had already arrived in France, when he was appointed travelling tutor to the prince of HolsteinOldenburg, who was on a tour through France and Italy. But in Strasburg, he was prevented from proceeding by the dis ease of his eyes, which had returned, with more severity than before; and here he became acquainted with Göthe, on whom he had a very decided influence. Herder had already published his Fragments on German Literature, his Critical Wolds, and other productions, which had gained him a considerable reputation, though he had not, at this time, published any thing of importance in theology; yet, while in Strasburg, he was invited to become court preacher, superintendent and consistorial counsellor, at Bückeburg, whither he proceeded in 1771. He soon made himself known as a distinguished theologian, and, in 1775, was offered a professorship at Göttingen, which he, however, did not accept immediately, because the king had not confirmed his appointment unconditionally, and, contrary to custom, he was expected to undergo a kind of examination. But, being married, Herder did not feel at liberty to decline the appointment. On the very day when he had resolved to go to Göttingen,he received an invitation to become court preacher, general superintendent and consistorial counsellor at Weimar. This appointment was through the influence of Göthe. He arrived in Weimar in October, 1776. It was at the time when the duke Augustus and the princess Amalia had collected many of the most distinguished German literati at their court. Weimar was greatly benefited by Herder's labors, as a pulpit orator, inspector of the schools of the country, the patron of merit, and founder of many excellent institutions. In 1801, he was made president of the high consistory, a place never before given to a person not a nobleman. Herder was subsequently made a noble by the elector of Bavaria. He says himself that he accepted the rank for the sake of his children; of course, it could be of little consequence to him personally. He died December 18, 1803. His widow wrote Reminiscences of Herder's Life, which J. G. Müller published, in two volumes (Stuttgard, 1820.) Herder was a model of virtue, and ready to do all the good in his power, yet his mind was often overcast with melancholy, on which occasions he would exclaim, O mein verfehltes Leben! (O my profitless life!) Germany is deeply indebted to him for his valuable works in almost every branch of literature, and few authors have had a greater influence upon the public taste in that country. A good idea of Herder's character may be obtained from reading Jean Paul Richter's enthusiastic remarks concerning him, in the Wahrheit aus Jean Paul's Leben, publish ed after the author's death, and the article, by the same, on Herder, in the Heidelberger Jahrbücher of 1812. His works were published, in 45 octavo volumes, by Cotta, in Tübingen, in 1806; and an edition, in 60 small 12mo. volumes, is now publishing by the same. It is divided into several parts; that comprising his writings on belles-lettres and literature, that on religion and theology, and that on philosophy and history. As a theologian, Herder contributed to a better understanding of the historical and antiquarian part of the Old Testament. His Geist der Hebräischen Poesie (1782; third edition by Justi, Leipsic, 1825, 2 vols., with additions) is highly valued. He did much for the better understanding of the classical authors, and his philosophical views of human character are full of instruction. He contributed much to a more active study of nature, brought before the public the poetry of past times of Europe and Asia, and awakened a taste for national songs. His greatest work is his Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (Riga, 1785 et seq.; a new edition, with an introduction, by professor Luden, Leipsic, 1821), in which all the light of his great mind is concentrated. "In early years," says Herder, "when the fields of knowledge lay before me, with all the glow of a morning sun, from which the meridian sun of life takes away so much of the charm, the idea often occurred to my mind, whether, like other great subjects of thought, each of which has its philosophy and science, that subject also, which lies nearest to our hearts, the history of mankind, viewed as a whole,-might not also have its philosophy and science. Every thing reminded me of this idea metaphysics and morals, natural philosophy and natural history, lastly and most powerfully, religion." This is the key to all Herder's life. The object of his investigations was to find the point from which he might calmly survey every thing, and see how all things converge. He did not attempt to arrive at this point by metaphysical speculations, but by observation, by the constant study of nature and the mind, in all its works, in the arts, law, language, religion, medicine, poetry, &c. Whatever may be said against parts of his work above mentioned, it is one of the noblest productions of modern literature. The style of Herder is pure and correct. In poetry, Herder effected more by his various accomplishments, his vast knowledge and fine taste, than by creative power; yet he has produced some charming songs; and his Cid, a collection of Spanish ro HERE. (See Juno.) HEREDITAMENTS; all such things, immovable, whether corporeal or incorporeal, as a man may leave to his heirs, by way of inheritance, or which, not being otherwise devised, naturally descend. Corporeal hereditaments consist wholly of substantial and permanent objects; incorporeal hereditaments are not the objects of sensation, are creatures of the mind, and exist only in contemplation. They are principally of 10 sorts, viz., advowsons, tithes, commons, ways, offices, dignities, franchises, presents and rents. HEREDITARY DISEASES. (See Discases, Hereditary.) HEREDITARY OFFICES. The few traces of such in antiquity are found mostly in the family offices of the priesthood. In the ancient German courts, it became a custom to assign, as marks of distinction, to the most eminent and loyal, those personal and domestic services towards the prince, which the Greeks and Romans imposed on slaves and freedmen. Thus arose the grea: court and crown offices:1. of the household (major domus, highsteward; camerarius, chamberlain); 2. of the kitchen (seneschal, dapifer, sewer); 3. of the cellar (cup-bearer, cellarius; buticularius, pincerna, butler); 4. of the stable (marshal, comes stabuli, connétable); all, at the same time, united with a high post in the army. The highest court officers of the German empire were the secular prince-electors, who, in later times, appointed hereditary deputies, to discharge the duties incumbent on them on solemn occasions, such as the crowning of the emperor, for instance. This remnant of feudalism has been justly abolished, in modern times, in many countries, whilst we are sorry to see that, in some countries, they have been even lately established. Thus George IV, as king of Hanover, within a few years, created count Münster, his favorite, hereditary marshal of Hanover. The only rational defence of hereditary monarchies is, that they are sometimes necessary to prevent greater evils; but this reason does not apply to hereditary succession in inferior offices, which is altogether a barbarous remnant of feudal times, when privileges were extorted, and the true objects of government little understood. HERETIC; one who embraces a heresy; considered Christ a mere man, and mainfrom the Greek alpers, which originally tained that the most wicked had the greatonly meant a sect, from aipcopa (I choose), est chance of salvation; the Nazarians, without implying praise or dispraise. following the Mosaic law with great strictThus we hear of the Peripatetic heresy, or ness; the Ophites, worshipping Christ sect of philosophers; and the heathens under the image of a serpent; the Patrospoke of the Christian heresy, meaning passians, denying the distinction of three merely their doctrine. When the idea of persons in the Godhead; the Artemonians, a Catholic church, its dogmas and exclu- believing in a union of a part of the Godsive claims to salvation, became more fully head with Christ at his birth; the Hermodeveloped, the word heretic was used in a genians, asserting the production of the narrower sense, to indicate one who differs human soul from an eternal but corrupt from the Catholic, that is, universal church, matter; the Montanists, who held their and who, at the same time, calls himself a founder for the Comforter; the Sethites, Christian. Hence neither Jews nor Mo- who declared Seth to be the Messiah; the hammedans,nor even apostates from Chris- Quartodecimans, who celebrated Easter tianity, except very rarely, are called here- like the Jews; the Cerdonians, who denitics. Augustin gives the following defini- ed the resurrection; the Manichæans (q.v.), tion of a heretic:-Hereticus est qui alicu- who adopted two divine principles, and jus temporalis commodi, et maxime gloria mixed the wildest theories with the docprincipatusque causa, novas opiniones vel trines of Christianity; the Alogians, who gignit, vel sequitur; and qui sub vocabulo denied the divinity of Christ; the EncraChristiano doctrina Christiana contumaci- tites, who condemned matrimony; the Arter resistit. The definition of a later dis- totyrites, who used bread and cheese in tinguished Catholic writer, Bossuet, is:- the Lord's supper. In the third century, Un hérétique est celui qui a une opinion à there were the Monarchists, denying three lui, qui suit sa propre pensée, et son senti- persons in the Godhead; the Samosatenment particulier; un Catholique, au con- sians and Paulinians, declaring Christ a traire, suit sans hésiter le sentiment de l'é- mere man, and the Holy Ghost a divine glise universelle. It is plain that the idea power; the Arabici, denying immortality; of a heretic presupposes the idea of a uni- the Hieracites, belonging to the Manichæversal or general church, and an estab- ans; the Noëtians, teaching that God the lished faith. Thus Christ was crucified, Father had become a man, and suffered; and Stephen stoned by the Jews for here- the Sabellians, denying the distinction of sy, or for deviating from their established persons in the Trinity; the Novatians, who church. The origin of heretics is to be refused to readmit those who had fallen referred to the time when a Christian off during the times of persecution; the church was publicly established, and began Origenians, believing in the final salvation to acknowledge certain dogmas as ortho- of the devil and the damned; the Chiliasts, dox, and to designate opinions at variance or Millenarians, believing in a millennium; with them as false. Yet a diversity of the Aquarians, using water, instead of opinions always existed on certain points, wine, in the Lord's sapper. In the fourth because the Bible is a book of faith, treat- century, the principal heretical sects were ing of divine subjects in the imperfect the Arians, ascribing to the Son a nature language of men, and, therefore, admit- and essence inferior to that of the Father; ting, in many passages, different explana- the Apollinarians, denying the human nations, according to different preconceived ture of Christ; the Photinians, maintainviews. Many of the early Christians pre- ing that Christ was born of the Holy served their Jewish or Greek philosophical Ghost and Mary; the Macedonians, denynotions, and mingled them with the doc- ing the divinity of the Holy Ghost; the trines of Christianity. This was another Priscillianists, reviving the Gnostic errors; source of difference. Even in the time the Donatists, who held peculiar opinions of the apostles, we find traces of the Gnos- respecting the church; the Euchites, astics. (q. v.) From them sprang the Simo- cribing to each individual an evil spirit, nians (who opposed to the Supreme God a which could only be driven out by prayer; principle of evil), the Nicolaitans and the the Collyridians, who made offerings to Cerinthians, who introduced Jewish Gnos- Mary; the Seleucians, ascribing a bodily tic ideas into Christianity. In the second form to God; the Anthropomorphites, ascentury, we must mention particularly the cribing a human body to God; the JovinBasilidians, who taught the generation of ians, denying the virginity of Mary; the the Eons from God, and denied the di- Bonosians or Adoptianists, considering vinity of Christ; the Carpocratians, who Christ as merely the adoptive son of God. In the fifth century arose the Nestorians, who attributed the two natures of Christ to two persons; the Eutychians, Monophysites and Jacobites, allowing but one person in Christ; the Theopaschites, teaching the incarnation and crucifixion of the three persons of the Godhead; the Pelagians, denying the depravity of human nature, and its salvation by grace alone; the Predestinarians, teaching the fore-ordination of salvation and damnation. In the sixth century were the Agnoëtae, teaching that Christ, in his human nature, did not know all things; the Tritheists, making three distinct Gods of the three persons of the Deity; the Monothelites, allow ing only one will in Christ; the Aphthardocetes, teaching that the body of Christ was not subjected to any suffering. In the ninth century were the Paulicians, adhering to some doctrines of the Manichæans: in the 12th century, the Bogomili, teaching the creation of the world by a fallen angel, driven from heaven; the Catharists, reviving Gnostical doctrines; the Petrobusians, rejecting the baptism of children; the Waldenses, demanding a reformation of the church; the Mystics, the Wicliffites, Hussites, and, at a later period, the Lutherans, Calvinists, with all the variety of Protestant sects and churches. It is evident that, for the historian, the word heretic can have only the relative meaning of heterodox (q. v.), because, as soon as a church or sect declares itself in possession of the true and sole doctrine of salvation and religious truth, it declares, by this circumstance, all other doctrines of faith heretical. Thus the Greek Catholic church declares Roman Catholicism a heresy, and vice versa, whilst the Calvinist declares popery a heresy. We shall not here speak of all the persecutions which different sects have directed against those whom they considered heretics, but will only mention that the Roman Catholic church, as such, has always made a distinction between heretics who obstinately persist in their heresy, and heretics merely through error, or who have been born in heresy. The fathers of the church declare themselves ignorant of the final condition of the latter. Again, the church distinguishes peaceable heretics from those whose doctrines produce public confusion and disorder. However, it generally considers that all heresies lead, sooner or later, to disturbances and bloodshed. The doctrines considered heretical by the Roman church may be found in the Dictionnaire des Herésies, by the abbé Pluquet, with the history, progress, nature, and also the Catholic 24 VOL. VI. refutations of their errors. It is well known that the Catholic church prohibits priests from shedding blood (they were not even allowed to perform surgical operations); and hence, according to the Catholic representation, death has never been inflicted upon heretics by the church, which merely declared them, after due admonition, to be heretics, excommunicated them, and gave them up to the secular government, to be treated according to the laws, a view of religious persecutions which has been adopted by other sects also; but, for the impartial historian, this argument can have no other weight, than that the church, as such, has not ordered the execution of heretics, whilst its members were often affected by the spirit of the age, and, by giving up a heretic to the secular government, aware that a painful torture and cruel death awaited him, in fact, devoted him to destruction. It must be remembered, however, that secular princes were often active in the prosecution of heretics, considering them as disturbers of the peace; and several instances are on record, in which the pope requested sovereigns to avoid cruelty towards heretics. Before Christianity was made the religion of the Roman state, nothing but excommunication (q. v.) was inflicted upon the heretic; but severe laws were passed soon after the conversion of the emperors. When the bishop excommunicated a heretic, the secular authority banished him; he lost his civil rights, and was even punished with death; he could not be an accuser, witness nor judge; could not make a will; and even his family were subjected to some penalties. The code of Justinian contains many ordinances against heretics, and the canon law made it a duty to denounce them, under pain of excommunication, even if the party were a wife or husband, parent or child, and to assist their judges, without remuneration, &c. They were not permitted to be acquainted with the witnesses against them, nor with their testimony; they were not allowed to have counsel, nor to appeal. As early as 385, Priscillian was condemned to death, as a heretic, by the Spanish bishops at the council of Treves; and the punishment of death, which the emperors ordered to be inflicted on the Arians, after the Nicene council, was more commonly inflicted on heretics. But the persecutions of heretics, properly so called, began in the pontificate of Gregory VII, in the 11th century. The emperor Frederic II authorized them, against the Albigenses and Waldenses, by an edict, issued at Padua, in 1222. From that time, persecutions of heretics took place in almost all Christian countries. Spain, Italy and France, from the 13th to the 16th century, suffered much from these persecutions, which were often conducted with more fury, as political considerations were mingled with them; and the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and the acts of the Spanish inquisition, are foul blots on the history of man. The states of Germany, collectively, have never shown that spirit of persecution which has stained other countries. The Carolina (q. v.) does not mention heresy at all; and, by the peace of Westphalia, it was settled that neither of the three confessions (Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists), should accuse the other of heresy. As the unity of the church is considered, by the Catholics, one of its three essential qualities, heresy, or a deviation from the dogmas of the church, must appear to them much more alarming than to other Christian sects. (See Semler's Introduction to Baumgarten's Polemics; C. M. F. Walch's Sketch of a Complete History of Heresy; Baumgarten's History of Religious Divisions, and J. G. Walch's Biblio. Theol.) HERIOT. (See Hariot.) HERMANDAD (Spanish, brotherhood). The cities of Castile, as they advanced in consideration, and obtained, by the grants of the kings, who made use of their services against the arrogant nobility, a feeling of their own importance, frequently formed connexions to defend themselves against the usurpations and the rapaciousness of the feudal nobility. This object was most clearly apparent in the brotherhood (Hermandad), formed in 1295, by the cities of the kingdoms of Castile and Leon, which threatened with the destruction of his houses, vineyards and gardens, every nobleman who should rob or injure a member of the association, and who would not make satisfaction, or give security for the observance of the law. Even if a nobleman had only challenged a member of the association, and refused to give security, the challenged person had the right of putting him to death. These fraternities were the model of the later Hermandad of the municipal communities, which was formed in Castile, under the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. It was established in 1486, with the approbation of the king, at a time when the nobles paid no attention to the royal commands to keep the peace, robbed the defenceless villagers and industrious citizens, and made the highways unsafe. The city authorities raised a military force, and appointed judges in different parts of the kingdom. The disturbers of the public peace were sought out by the armed bands, carried before the judges, and punished. Neither rank nor station protected the offender against the tranquillity of the country, nor could he find safety even in the churches. The nobility, who saw their turbulence restrained, and their judicial power limited, by this institution, opposed it in vain; for the king protected the Hermandad, as a powerful means of preserving public peace, and, at the same time, an effectual means of strengthening and extending the royal power; since the forces of the city authorities composed a part of the standing army, without needing to be paid by the court. The Hermandad was also introduced into Arragon, in 1488. The Santa Hermandad (holy brotherhood) (a name which has occasioned some to confound this institution with the inquisition, or to consider it as depending upon that establishment) had, like the earlier institution, of which it was a continuation, the object of securing internal safety, and seizing disturbers of the peace and highway robbers, but did not act except in case of offences actually committed. It consisted only of a company of armed police officers, who were distributed in the different provinces of the kingdom of Castile, and whose duty it was to provide for the security of the roads outside of the cities. One of their strictest regulations was, not to use their power within the cities. They were subject to the council of Castile. The principal divisions of the company had fixed stations at Toledo, at Ciudad-Rodrigo, and at Talavera. HERMANN, John Godfrey James; one of the greatest living philologists. He was born in 1772, at Leipsic, where his father was senior of the bench of magistrates. His taste for classical literature was early developed by a good education. His instructer, Reiz, thoroughly initiated him in the Greek and Latin languages, and, at Leipsic and Jena, he exercised his intellect by the study of philosophy and mathematics, and extended his knowledge by that of history. Hermann was destined for the law, which, with the exception of the natural law, he pursued without pleasure. His fondness for literary studies became constantly stronger. 1794, he obtained the privilege of delivering lectures, by the defence of his dissertation De Poeseos Generibus. Upon enter In |