In a country of savages, you find a small number of inhabitants spread over a vast tract of land. Depending on the precarious subsistence afforded by fishing and hunting, they are frequently subject to dearths and famines, which cut them off in great numbers: they rear but few children, for want destroys them in their early years the aged and infirm are often put to death, but rather from motives of humanity than of cruelty, for the hunter's life requiring a great extent of country, and long and perilous excursions in quest of food, they would be wholly incapable of following the young and robust, and would die of hunger, or become a prey to wild beasts.

As soon as these savages begin to apply themselves to pasturage, their means of subsistence are brought within narrower limits, requiring only that degree of wandering necessary to provide fresh pasturage for their cattle. Their flocks ensuring them a more easy subsistence, their families begin to increase; they lose in a great measure their ferocity, and a considerable improvement takes place in their character.

By degrees the art of tillage is discovered, a small tract of ground becomes capable of feeding a greater relative number of people; the necessity of wandering in search of food is superseded; families begin to settle in fixed habitations, and the arts of social life are introduced and cultivated.

In the savage state, scarcely any form of government is established; the people seem to be under no control but that of their military chiefs in time of warfare.

The possession of flocks and herds in the pastoral state introduces property, and laws are necessary for its security; the elders and leaders therefore of these wandering tribes begin to establish laws, to violate which is to commit a crime, and to incur a punishment.

This

39. What account is given of a country wholly inhabited by savages?-40. What change takes place when savages give themselves to pasturage?- -41. What further change takes place when they discover the art of tillage?-42. What is said of government in a savage state?- -43. What is mentioned to be the origin of social order?

is the origin of social order; and when in the third state the people settle in fixed habitations, the laws gradually assume the more regular form of a monarchical or republican government. Every thing now wears a new aspect; industry flourishes, the arts are invented, the use of metals is discovered; labor is subdivided; every one applies himself more particularly to a distinct employment, in which he becomes skilful. Thus, by slow degrees, this people of savages, whose origin was so rude and miserable, becomes a civilized people, who occupy a highly cultivated country, crossed by fine roads, leading to wealthy and populous cities, and carrying on an extensive trade with other countries.

Caroline. This is a very pleasing outline of the history of the rise and progress of civilization; but I should like to see it a little more filled up.

Mrs B. The subject you will find hereafter sufficiently developed; for the whole business of political economy is to study the causes which have thus cooperated to enrich and civilize a nation. This science is, therefore, essentially founded upon history,-not the history of sovereigns, of wars, and of intrigues; but the history of the arts, and of trade, of discoveries, and of civilization. We see some countries, like America, increase rapidly in wealth and prosperity, whilst others, like Egypt and Syria, are impoverished, depopulated, and falling to decay; when the causes which produce these various effects are well understood, some judgment may be formed of the measures which governments have adopted to contribute to the welfare of their people; whether such or such a branch of commerce should be encouraged in preference to others; whether it be proper

44. In what state of improvement does the monarchical or republican form of government commence?-45. What ultimately

becomes the condition of this supposed people of Savages? 46. What does Mrs B. say is the whole business of political economy?--47. On what is the science founded?- -48. What remarks are made in this place of Egypt and America, illustrative of the subject?

to prohibit this or that kind of merchandise; whether any peculiar encouragement should be given to agriculture; whether it be right to establish by law the price of provisions or the price of labor, or whether they should be left without control; and so on.

You see, therefore, that political economy consists of two parts-theory and practice; the science and the art. The science comprehends a knowledge of the facts which we have enumerated; the art relates more particularly to legislation, and consists in doing whatever is requisite to contribute to the increase of national wealth, and avoiding whatever would be prejudicial to it. Mistakes in theory lead to errors in practice. When we enter into details, we shall have occasion to observe that governments, misled by false ideas of political economy, have frequently arrested the natural progress of wealth when it was in their power to have accelerated it.

Caroline. But since the world was originally a rude wilderness, and yet has arrived at the improved state of civilization in which we now find it, the errors of government cannot have been very prejudicial.

Mrs B. The natural causes which tend to develope the wealth and prosperity of nations are more powerful than the faults of administration which operate in a contrary direction. But it is nevertheless true that these errors are productive of a great deal of mischief; that they check industry and retard the progress of improvement. Under bad governments, particular classes of people are favored, others discouraged and oppressed: prosperity is thus unequally shared, and riches unfairly distributed. You look very grave, Caroline; do you begin to grow tired of the subject?

Caroline. Oh no;

I think thus far I have understood

49. Of how many parts does political economy consist?- -50. What does the science comprehend?-51. To what does the art or practice relate ?- -52. What is said of the natural causes which tend to develope the wealth and prosperity of nations ?- -53. What is the condition of the people under bad governments?

you; but before we proceed you must allow me to mention an objection which I confess distresses me; if it is well founded I shall be quite at variance with the maxims of political economy, and that science will no longer retain any interest for me. I find that you are constantly talking of wealth; of the causes which produce it; of the means of auginenting it. To be rich, very rich, richer than other people, seems to be the great aim of political economy. Whilst religion and morality teach us that we should moderate the thirst of gain, that inordinate love of wealth is the source of all crimes. Besides that, it is very evident that the richest people are not always the happiest? Now, if wealth does not conduce to the happiness of individuals, how can it constitute that of nations? A poor but virtuous people are surely happier than a rich and vicious one. What remarkable examples do we not see of this in history. We are taught to admire the Greek republics, who despised the pomp and luxury of wealth. And then the Romans; during the early part of their history they were poor and virtuous, but the acquisition of wealth depraved their character, and rendered them the slaves of tyrants. Now political economy appears to me to induce the love of riches, and to consider it as the only end to be attained by government.

Mrs B. This is a most alarming attack upon political economy! When, however, you understand it better, you will find that your censure is unfounded. At present you must take my word for it, as I cannot show you the benefits arising from just principles of political economy, before you are acquainted with the principles themselves; but I can assure you that they all tend to promote the happiness of nations, and the purest of morality. Far from exciting an inordinate desire of wealth or power,

it

54. What objection does Caroline raise as to a supposed inconsistency between the principles of political economy and those of Christianity?--55. What comparison does she make between rich and poor people?--56. What observation does; she make concerning ancient Greece and Rome ?--57. With what does Mrs B. tell Caroline she must be acquainted, before she can comprehend the benefits of just principles of political economy?

tends to moderate all unjustifiable ambition, by showing that the surest means of increasing national property are peace, security, and justice; that jealousy between nations is as prejudicial as between individuals; that each finds its advantage in reciprocal benefits; and that far from growing rich at each other's expense, they mutually assist each other by a liberal system of commerce. Political economy is particularly inimical to the envious, jealous, and malignant passions; and if ever peace and moderation should flourish in the world, it is to enlightened views of this science that we should be indebted for the miracle.

But, my dear Caroline, I suspect that there is some error in your idea of riches. What do you call riches? Caroline. Of course to be rich is to have a great income; to be able to spend a great deal more than other people.

Mrs B. You speak of the riches of individuals; of comparative wealth. A rich man in one class of society might be poor in another. But this is not the definition that I asked for-what do you understand by riches in general-in what does wealth consist?

Caroline. Oh, I suppose you mean money ? I should say wealth consists in gold and silver.

Mrs B. Consider what would be the situation of a country which possessed no other wealth than money. Do you recollect in what estimation Robinson Crusoe held his bag of gold when he was wrecked on a desert island?

Caroline. True; but in an island which is not desert, money will purchase whatever you want.

Mrs B. Then I should rather say that the things which we are desirous to procure with our money, such

58. What does Mrs B. say is the moral tendency of this science? -59. To what description of persons does she say that political economy is particularly inimical?—— -60. In what does Caroline suppose riches to consist?

-61.

How does Mrs B. convince Caroline that wealth does not consist in money?- -62. In what does Mrs B. herself represent riches to consist?