officers, called Tersané and Calyoun Tzavoucheléri, furnished with a buguruldi, or order from the admiral,' visit, under the name of mubachir, or commissioners of the isles,' the maritime towns of European Turkey, of Asia Minor, of the Euxine Sea, and of Syria, and commit all sorts of atrocities. The number of these Tzavouches amounts, usually, to three thousand. They receive a very miserable pay from the admiral's chest ; nevertheless, the single article of their laced uniform, and their arms, costs above eight thousand Turkish piasters. Each spends annually, on an average, five thousand piasters for food, and other necessaries, as well as for his amusements. Whence do they procure so much money?-From extortion and rapine.

After the Ottoman fleet had been burnt by the Russians in the harbour of Tzechemé, Hassan-Pacha,1 surnamed Pala-Buyuklou, or with great mustachios,' became grand admiral. As he had been, from his infancy, employed in the navy of the barbaric regencies, he had acquired some experience, and much improved the Turkish marine by the selection and discipline of his officers, and by the improvements he made in the mode of building men of war. His almost immediate successor was Hussein-Pacha, the first page, and the prime favourite of sultan Selim. When he was elevated to the post of grand admiral, he knew nothing but how to draw off his highness's boots when he dismounted from horseback. But, thanks to the long interval of peace, this bootcatcher paraded tranquilly about the Egean sea, at the head of the Turkish squadrons. Uniting astonishing activity to a natural sagacity, he surpassed his predecessor in all that he did, with reference to the matériel of the marine. He sent for European builders, and constructed very beautiful ships of war of all sizes, composed their crews of insular Greeks,' excavated a his pardon. In the first days of the insurrection of the Greeks, the sultan ordered his admiral to put to death Prince Nicolas Mourouzy, then the Admiralty interpreter, and cruized purposely in his gondola before the place of the arsenal, to satiate himself with the spectacle of his punishment. In fact, the sultan grazed the quay of the Admiralty with his boat, and the Tzavouches surrounded the unhappy prince, drew thelr yatagans, and cut him to pieces.

(1) This admiral, a Georgian slave, was celebrated in the affair of the Trhesme; but he acquired more reputation by his undaunted courage, and by his extraordinary intrepidity. In the Empress Catharine's second war, having engaged in a naval combat with the Prince of Nassau, in the Black Sea, he was beaten, and forced to take flight in a galley, called, in the Turkish language, kirlughitz. Pursued by the prince, he kept saying to his crew, who were dreadfully frightened by the balls which whistled about their heads, Kovkman yoldachelar karbouz dirlar' -Comrades, do not be afraid; they are only melons.'

(2) The Ottoman fleet, before the insurrection of Greece, were manned by the Greeks of the Archipelago; above all, by those of Hydra, Spezzia, and Psara. Their pay was furnished by the Greek nation. The patriarch of Constantinople was empowered, by an express order from the Porte, to impose the requisite sum, called méllahiyé, or ́the sailor's pay,' on the Greek inhabitants of the capital, and of the provinces, by the medium of their archbishops and their respective primates.

dock

dock sufficiently large for the building and repair of first-rates; in fact, he created fleets for the nation, but without creating sailors. Enjoying the favour, or, rather, the unalterable friendship of Sultan Selim, who was his firm supporter against the janissaries, he obtained from his master a carte blanche respecting all affairs regarding the marine. Indulging in the most prodigal expenditure for the building, equipment, and superfluous decoration of men-of-war, and for a thousand other purposes of ultra-oriental luxury, he not only consumed the revenues of the Admiralty, but emptied the chest of the Imperial Treasury. Woe to the minister of finance, if he had made the slightest resistance to the payment of the sums which Hussein demanded! He would not have scrupled to repair at the head of four hundred armed naval officers, to the department of the minister, and to, plunge a poniard into his breast.' The expedition by sea and land which he commanded against the famous rebel PasvandOgloo of Widin, cost, in six months, in consequence of his prodigality and want of economy, more than a hundred millions of Turkish piasters.*

The maritime expeditions also, under his command for the recovery of Egypt, invaded by Napoleon, and for the expulsion of the French from Naples, as well as from the Ionian Islands, exhausted the Ottoman empire by extraordinary imposts, and served to swallow a great part of the treasures of the seraglio, so that, after his death, the Ottoman marine began visibly to decline, and fall into a state of languor and decay.

Our limits forbid us to proceed; but we shall take an early opportunity of laying before our readers an account of the Turkish priesthood, the Turkish land-forces-particularly the late janissaries, and the Seraglio.

(1) The Grand-Admiral is obliged, when he is at Constantinople, to appear every Friday, in state, at the Ottoman Porte, and to pay homage to the Grand Vizier. Although he has the rank of a Pacha of three tails, he acknowledges the superiority of the Sultan's absolute lieutenant. When, therefore, he approaches him, he makes a profound bow, called téménna, and advances to kiss the hem of his pelisse; but the Grand Vizier, on his part, rises, draws back his robe with haste, and salutes, in the same manner, with a bow to the ground. The admiral, Hussein Pacha, angry with the minister for foreign affairs, called Atif Efendy, because he destroyed the effect of one of his reports to the Porte, repaired to the Grand Vizier's, with the intention of poniarding the minister as soon as he presented himself to the Vizier. The Minister, apprised of the Admiral's intention, furtively quitted the Porte, under the pretext of indisposition; repeating the trick every time the admiral visited the vizier, until he had succeeded in appeasing his rage.

(2) The Turkish piaster was then worth about twenty pence.

SHORT

SHORT REVIEWS OF BOOKS.

Gaii Institutionum Commentarii quatuor e codice rescripto Bibliothecæ Capitularis Berolinensis. A Federico Bluhmio iterum collato. Edid. Jo. Feder. Goeschen. Editio altera. Berolini. Impensis Geo. And. Reimerii. Gaii Jurisconsulti Institutionum Commentarius quartus, sive de Actionibus. Recensuit, &c. Augustus Guil. Heffter, Antecessor Bonnensis. Berolini.

1824.

1827.

THE golden æra of Roman jurisprudence commences with the empire

and ends with the accession of Alexander Severus to the throne. During this time, as is well known, no branch of study met with more encouragement than jurisprudence.

Among those who gave to this period a lustre unequalled in any other age or country are Servius Sulpitius, Offilius, Labeo, Sabinus, Julianus, Gajus, Papinian, Paulus Ulpian, Modestinus. Those of their works which have reached us are not less remarkable for the purity of style, than for the acuteness of reasoning, and for the diffusion of those liberal and philosophical views which gave to the Roman jurisprudence an everlasting influence over the whole civilised world. Unhappily, however, the most important of their works are lost, and we should even have been ignorant of their existence, if the commission charged by Justinian to form a code of laws had not preserved a collection of fragments, which, even in their mutilated state, command at the present day the admiration of the learned jurisconsults of Europe.

In this collection of fragments there are 536 of Gajus, whose opinions we find also quoted four times in the fragments of other jurisconsults. He lived under the emperors M. Aurelius and Commodus, and had written a work entitled "Institutionum Commentarii," and also another" De Rebus quotidianis," the first of which was highly estimated, not only by his contemporaries, who used it as a manual in the schools of law, but also by the lawyers in the time of Justinian-so much so, that Trebonianus confesses that he composed his Institutiones chiefly after those of Gajus. Many centuries elapsed without finding the original work, the loss of which was much felt by all writers on Roman law. At length (in 1816) Niebuhr, while on his travels to Italy, succeeded in discovering this treasure in Verona. The library of the chapter in Verona possesses many important manuscripts in parchment, among which are:

1. Codex membranaceus rescriptus, olim xv nunc xiii.; in which, under some writings of St. Hieronymus, were found the Institutiones of Gajus.

2. Folium singulare membranaceum, containing a treatise on the laws of prescription and interdicts, likewise written by Gajus.

3. Folia membranacea duo, quæ tamen inter se cohærent, containing a fragment of an old jurisconsult on the "Right of the Crown."

The fragments contained in Nos. 2, 3, were discovered first by Maffei, and mentioned in his Verona Illustrata, Parte terza, Verona, 1732, 8vo. cap. 7. p. 464, but did not obtain great attention.

In the year 1816, however, Niebuhr, when passing through Verona, examined different manuscripts, and discovered that MS. No. 1 was a rescript, and by using a chemical process he brought to light the hidden

treasure;

treasure; he copied a portion in haste, and sent it to Professor Savigny at Berlin.

This celebrated jurisconsult made known the important discovery to the literary world by his excellent review on historical jurisprudence; and the government of Prussia, in order to have a copy of the whole, sent two learned men, Professors Beckker and Goeschen to Verona; these gentlemen were afterwards joined by Professor Hollweg, who, animated by a love of science, proceeded to Verona at his own expense.

It is unnecessary to describe their mode of proceeding in copying and re-establishing this treasure of antiquity, the genuineness of which is fully proved, not only by a comparison with the Institutiones of Justinian, with the Breviarius of Alaric, but also principally by the fragments quoted in the digests and in the Mosaicarum et Romanarum Legum Collatio, in which the identity of the original text and of the quoted fragments is completely established.

Two other manuscripts of the same work were discovered (at Vienna and Vercelli), the collation and examination of which enabled the editors of the works prefixed at the head of this article to restore the text of Gajus so much, as to render it useful both to the historian and the jurist. They enriched it by learned notes and commentaries, to which we refer those of our readers who are interested for a branch of knowledge, which is not less essential to the man of classical acquirements, than the acquaintance with the history of Rome, of which, indeed, the most important part consists in its legislature.

C. Odofr. Muelleri de Phidia Vita et Operibus cum Tabula are expressa, qua signa adumbrantur quæ fuerunt in Portico Hecatompedi fastigio. Goettingæ. 1827.

THE works of this ingenious and most accomplished German scholar deserve to be more known in this country. They are of the highest importance to the history and mythology of Greece. His archæological researches, particularly those referring to the history of the fine arts among the Greeks, display extensive erudition and acute observation. The Germans have done much in these departments; the works of Meyer, Hirt, Boettiger, Thiersch, Welcker, and Schorn ought to be in the hands of every Greek scholar. The work before us contains three dissertations, which were read to the Royal Society of Sciences at Goettingen. The first is a biographical sketch of Phidias, and establishes beyond doubt that Phidias began to embellish Athens with his works of sculpture, in Olymp. 82 or 83, when Pericles was

Tά; that he finished in the third year of Olymp. 85, the statue (Xguosλspávivor) of Minerva for the Parthenon; that the Elians, when the name of Phidias had become known all over Greece for the splendid works he had executed at Athens, induced him to come to Elis, and that he made there the statue of the Olympian Jupiter, between Olymp. 85, a. 3, and 86, a. 3.; and, finally, that after his return to Athens, Phidias was thrown into prison by the enemies of Pericles, on a charge of peculation and impiety, and that he died in prison, in the first year of Olymp. 87, in which year the last work of Pericles the Propylees had been finished. The second shows the state of the fine arts before Phidias, and to what height they were carried by his genius. The third gives a new explanation of the statues on the western front of the Parthenon at Athens, which, we hope, Colonel Leake, Cockerell, and other competent men of our country, will take the trouble to examine. The word yiygara, in the Schol. ad Æl. Aristid., applied to statuary, seems a stumbling-block to us; there might have been a painting in the Acropolis, perhaps in the axo9ńan, to which

the

the words of the scholiast could refer; but the explanation of our author luckily does not depend on this passage.

Deycks, F. de Megaricorum Doctrina, ejusque apud Platonem atque Aristotelem Vestigiis. Bonnæ. 1827.

AN interesting and valuable treatise on the Megaric School of Philosophy. It is divided into two parts: 1. Megaricorum historia. 2. Megaricorum doctrina. Another private lecturer, at Bonn, Dr. Brandis, has published, in the Rhenish Museum, an excellent treatise on Socratic Philosophy. The history of Greek philosophy has been considerably enriched by the diligence and acuteness of these scholars.

Sammlung Architectonischer Entwürfe, von Schinkel; enthaltend theils Werke welche ausgeführt, theils Gegenstände deren Ausfuhrung beabsichtigt wurde. Berlin. Gr. Quer. folio, Erstes-Sechstes heft.

SCHINKEL is the great architect of Berlin. The style of this master is purely classical, yet his designs are not so much copies of the antique, as a tasteful adaptation of its forms and details, so as to impart a considerable degree of piquant originality to his compositions, which are admirable examples of grandeur and richness of decoration combined with simplicity,— of unity of character joined to variety. The principal divisions are boldly marked and well contrasted, and there is at the same time a repose and soberness that serve as a relief to the embellishments, and heighten their effect.

The New Theatre and Museum are indisputably his two finest works; and for purity of style, yet decided originality, will not suffer by a comparison with any modern edifices. The first, which is entirely insulated, has four fronts, somewhat varied in design, but still preserving throughout that unity of character so essential in every work of art, and so conducive to grandeur of effect. The principal façade has in its centre an exceedingly noble hexastyle portico of the Grecian Ionic order, fluted, the ascent to which is by a lofty and magnificent flight of steps, the height of the basement. This certainly imparts an air of great majesty and dignity to the edifice, yet is not altogether adapted to a northern climate: in order, therefore, to obviate this objection, the architect has ingeniously contrived a covered carriageway beneath the portico. The pediment has an alto-relievo representing Niobe and her children: within the portico itself are antæ, corresponding with the columns in front; and between these, and also on each side the portico, and on the other sides of the buildings, are two series of lesser antæ, the intercolumns of which form windows. Above the portico, but not immediately over it, rises a superstructure consisting likewise of antæ, and crowned by a second pediment filled with sculpture, and surmounted by a colossal figure of Apollo in a car drawn by two-winged griffins. There are likewise statues on the pediment of the portico, and on the pedestals at the extremities of the steps. The details are throughout exceedingly chaste and beautiful, the general outline bold and striking, the various features well proportioned to, and contrasted with each other; and harmony of character pervades the whole. The effect of the temple-like superstructure, with its roof extending in one unbroken line, in the centre of the building, is exceedingly classical and chaste. Indeed the whole structure is conceived in so grand a gusto,-so much in the spirit of antiquity, without betraying anything that can be deemed mere imitation, that it has more the air of some fabric designed by an artist for some classical historical landscape composition, than the creation of a modern architect. And here it may not be altogether irrelevant to ask how it happens that on can