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of the submarine land had continued, and that at the point indicated the depth was not more than four fathoms and a half. In 1830 the same observers made new soundings, which enabled them to determine the form and extent of the mass of rock, which in less than a year had been elevated half a fathom. It was found to extend nearly 900 yards from east to west, and about 550 from north to south. The submarine surface deepened gradually to the north and west, from four to twenty-nine fathoms; on the east and south this increased to forty-five fathoms. Beyond this limit the soundings indicated in all directions a very great depth. I have lately been informed that Admiral Lalande, who, since 1830, has twice returned to Santorin, has ascertained that the rock still continues to rise; and that, in September 1835, the date of his last visit, the depth of water amounted to only two fathoms; so that a sunken reef now exists which it is dangerous for brigs to approach. If the rock continues to rise at the same rate, it may be calculated that in 1840 it will form a new island. Since the eruptions of 1707 and 1712, which produced the new Kaïméni, volcanic phenomena have completely ceased in the gulf of Santorin, and the volcano seems at the present day quite extinct. Nevertheless, the rise of a portion of its surface seems to demonstrate continual efforts during fifty years to make an eruption; and that, whenever the resistance shall not be strong enough to offer a sufficient obstacle, the volcano will again resume its activity."

French Scientific Congress, 1836. THE Fourth Session of the Scientific Congress of France commenced on the 11th of September at Blois, and terminated on the 21st. About 200 members, natives of France, were present. There were several English, German, Belgic, and Spanish visiters, and, among the rest, several ladies.

The business of the Congress was pursued with such zeal, that, during nearly the whole of the session, several sections met twice a day, and very frequently the afternoon sitting was continued till late in the evening; but, notwithstanding, a day more than the prescribed period was required to bring up arrears, and was unanimously agreed to. The Fifth Session will be held at Metz in the early part of Sept. 1837.

Substitutes for costly Drugs.

"Ir is well known that, in some instances, drugs which are vended under the same name, and might be supposed to be similar in their effects, are so different in their qualities and powers, that the administration of them is attended with much uncertainty, and, therefore, with considerable danger. The same prescription may, in cases exactly similar, produce, from the dissimilarity in the properties of the drug that is employed, either the cure or the fatal termination of the malady; and the accurate discrimination of the drugs which are genuine from those which are of inferior quality, is of the utmost importance to those by whom they are compounded, as well as to those by whom they are administered. I speak from very high authority when I state, that of some drugs which are vended in this country, only four parts in a hundred are of the best quality, and are consequently possessed of their full efficacy, while the other ninety-six parts contain, in some instances, only one half the quantity of the active principles which ought to belong to them. I am assured, that of the colocynth imported into this country, only one-hundredth part is of the best quality; that there is of scammony, of the Peruvian bark, and of rhubarb, only a very small proportion; but that there is of ipecacuanha and of sarsaparilla a larger proportion, and a larger still of jalap; and all of these are, I need not say, very important medicines, which are frequently administered. If all of them were of an inferior quality, they would, of course, be far less efficacious, but there would not be the same difficulty and danger in employing them, as is now experienced from the inequality in their power, and, consequently, from the uncertainty in their operation.

"The great difference of price between those of the best and those of an inferior quality, offers a strong inducement to use the latter; and it would be an inestimable advantage to the art of medicine if satisfactory substitutes for them could be discovered amongst the plants which are indigenous to this country. An admirable paper of Dr. Rousseau* proves incontestably that in the cure of intermittent fevers holly is preferable to

Rewarded by this Society with their silver medal.

the Peruvian bark; there is reason to believe that rhubarb of a good quality could be produced in this country, and that elm bark may supply the place of sarsaparilla; and it deserves further inquiry, whether the juice of the EUPHORBIA Cyparissias could not be used instead of scammony, and the seeds of the ATRIPLEX angustifolia instead of ipecacuanha. The analysis of these common indigenous plants would be highly interesting."-EARL STANHOPE, Address to the MedicoBotanical Society, 1836.

The Level of the Caspian Sea much

below that of the Ocean.

IN 1814 Messrs Engelhardt and Parrot attempted to determine, by means of the barometer, if, as was long ago supposed, the waters of the Caspian Sea are less elevated than those of the Mediterranean and the Ocean. The mean of three determinations gave a difference in this respect of 320 feet. But subsequently M. Parrot having thrown some doubt on the result of the observations made in 1814, M. Erman has taken up the subject, and the following is the result of his investigations:- Barometrical observations made for seven years at Kasan, compared with corresponding observations made during the same period at Dantzig, give 104 feet as the height of the former town above the level of the Baltic. This result is confirmed by six years' observations at Mittau. Hence, with the assistance of levelling, M. Erman concludes that the height of the junction of the Kasanka with the Volga is only 29 feet above the Baltic. Thus, in order that there should be a coincidence between the levels of the Caspian and the Baltic, it would be necessary that, in the extent of 1470 miles, between Kasan and Astracan, the descent of the river should not be more than 29 feet, which seems inadmissible. The descent of the Volga from Torjok to Kasan, in an extent of 690 miles, has been measured. Supposing that in the remainder of its course the river follows the same law, M. Erman has ascertained that the depression of the Caspian Sea, compared with the Baltic, would be 275 feet, a result which does not differ much from that (320 feet) obtained by Messrs. Engelhardt and Parrot.

Diamond-making anticipated.

ACCORDING to the following extract from a letter addressed by M. Theodore Virlet to M. Arago, another labourer in the vast field of chemical science appears to be approaching to the same point as Mr. Cross, but by a different route.

"Who does not know how many facts, perhaps among the most difficult to comprehend previously, have already been explained by the excellent researches of M. Becquerel in electrical chemistry, and the important labours of M. Fournet regarding the formation of veins? Numerous other facts, although not yet fully explained, have been brought forward, and admitted without dispute. For example, I have proved that the emery of Naxos comes from veins, and, consequently, had been formed, like the greater number of specular iron ores, by means of volatilization and sublimation; yet the corundum and oxide of iron, the mixture of which constitutes emery, are not more volatile than the carbonate of magnesia, which forms the subject of dispute.

"Since our chemical knowledge, then, does not always enable us to explain the phenomena whose existence we can prove, does it follow that we ought to call them in question? Has nature no mode of acting which surpasses our knowledge? And could she not proceed, for instance, by means of double chemical decomposition? On this supposition, the phenomenon (dolomisation) will admit of easy explanation. It is well known that all the muriates are volatile, or at least susceptible of sublimation. Magnesia might then easily reach the state of a muriate, and occasion the formation of a soluble hydrochlorate of lime, which would be carried off by the infiltration of water; while the magnesia, on the contrary, would be combined with that portion of the carbonic acid set at liberty, and would thus serve to form the double carbonate of magnesia and of lime, which constitutes dolomite, properly so called. In this there is certainly nothing inadmissible or contrary to reason, inasmuch as the hydrochloric acid gas is one of the gases most frequently disengaged from volcanoes, and the muriates ought to have been disengaged more abundantly in former times, if we admit, with geologists of

the modern school, that the immense | out even excepting those of the chalk deposits of rock-salt which exist in saliferous formations are deposited by volatilization, in the midst of the strata which they penetrate.

"I am, therefore, of opinion that the modifications of rocks of the second class may henceforth be all explained by means of double decomposition,-a process which has enabled one of my friends, M. Aimé, to produce, in the laboratory, crystallized specular iron ore, analogous to that of the Island of Elba, as well as pure iron equally well crystallized,‚—a substance hitherto unknown to mineralogists: whence I conclude, that the time is not perhaps far distant, when we shall be able to produce with case all the species of precious stones, without even excepting the diamond."

Fossil Ferns.

THE following general conclusions regarding the geological and geographical distribution of fossil ferns, are contained in a recent Memoir by Professor Göppert.

The beds of the coal formation contain the largest number of fossil ferns, viz. 183; while the muschelkalk, and the chalk and tertiary formations, contain the smallest number. The total number of these fossil vegetables at present known amounts to 253; of which 92 have been found in Silesia, 29 in Bohemia, 56 in the other countries of Germany, 49 in France and Belgium, 89 in Great Britain, in Denmark and Sweden, 1 in Italy, 11 in North America, 1 in Holland, and 4 in the East Indies. The ferns that are the most widely distributed on the globe are the following: -Alethopteris Serlii (in England, France, Silesia, Pennsylvania), Neuropteris angustifolia, and N. abutifolia (in England, Bohemia, Silesia, Pennsylvania), and N. Lohsii (in England, France, Belgium, in the districts of the middle Rhine, in Bohemia, and Silesia). Most of the ferns of the Jura formation occur in England. The number of fossil ferns amounts nearly to a third of the total number (800) of fossil vegetables at present known. But it is very probable that we are acquainted with but a small portion of these fossils. Several genera of ferns belong exclusively to one or to two formations.

Fossil ferns, of all formations, with

and the Molasse, present a striking resemblance to the tropical species of ferns, but none to those of temperate and cold climates. One of the principal conclusions to be drawn from the geological distribution of fossil ferns is, that each formation has particular species, which differ essentially from those of other formations. To this there are very few exceptions. Silesia is remarkable for its extremely rich fossil flora, for no less than 230 species have already been found in that country. The fossil flora of England resembles greatly that of Silesia. Excepting the genus Stigmaria, which is common to the transition and the coal formations, no species has been found in two formations. Finally, it is remarkable that dicotyledons and junci occur both in the most ancient and in the most modern deposits, a fact which tends to prove that there is little foundation for the opinon that at the earliest epochs cellular plants only existed, afterwards monocotyledons, and then at a later period dicotyledons.

Light indefinitely produced.

M. CAUCHY had been led, theoretically, to anticipate, that near the limit of total reflection in a prism refraction takes place, with a vast increase in the intensity of the incident ray of light. He has since verified it experimentally. The most astonishing results may be expected to ensue from this extraordinary fact, since it would appear from it, that light, however small in quantity, may be magnified indefinitely.

Patent-Law Grievance. No. IX.

THE penalties inflicted on the inventive genius of Britain during the present year, up to the 25th ult., in the shape of government stamps and fees on patents, amount to more than £38,000!

N.B. This sum has been paid in ready money, on taking the first steps, and as many of the inventors are poor men, (operatives,) and a great many others of them persons to whom it would be very inconvenient to pay at least £100 down, they have been obliged to go into debt, or mortgage or dispose of their inventions, either wholly or in part, &c.

NEW PATENTS. 1836.

N. B. The first Date annexed to each Patent, is that on which it was sealed and granted; the second that on or before which the Specification must be delivered and enrolled.The abbreviation For. Comm., siguifies that the invention, &c., is "a communication from a foreiguer residing abroad."

OCTOBER Cont.

241. JEREMIAH CROOK, Liverpool, Lanc., Merchant; for improvements in the machinery for manufacturing hat bodies. Oct. 28.-April 28. For. Comm.

242. THOMAS EDGE, Great Peter-street, Westm., Gas-apparatus and Lamp Manufacturer; for improvements in lighting or illuminating by gas, oil, or spirit-lights, or lamps. Oct. 28.-April 28. For. Comm.

TOTAL, OCTOBER...18.

NOVEMBER.

243. ROBERT COPLAND, Courlands, Wandsworth-rd., Surry, Esq.; for improvements upon patents already obtained by him, for combinations of apparatus for gaining power. Nov. 5.-May 5.

244. JAMES ELNATHAN SMITH, Liverpool, Lanc., Merchant; for improvements in railways, and on locomotive carriages to work on such railways. Nov. 8.-June 8. For. Comm.

245. JOHN WHITCHER, Ringwood, Hants, Carrier; for improvements in drags or apparatus applicable to carriages. Nov. 8.May 8.

246. JAMES SMITH the younger, and FRANCIS SMITH, Radford, Nott., Mechanics; for improvements in certain machinery already known, for making bobbinnet, or twist lace. Nov. 8.-May 8.

247. JOEL LIVSEY, Bury, Lanc., Cotton Spinner; for improvements in machinery used for spinning, preparing, and doubling cotton and other fibrous substances. Nov. 10.-May 10.

248. BERTIE PATERSON, Peacock-street, Newington, Surry, Engineer; for improvements in the construction of meters or apparatus for measuring gas or liquids. Nov. 12.-May 12.

249. HENRY AUGUSTUS WELLS, New York, but now of Threadneedle-st., London; for his improvements in the manufacture of hats. Nov. 15.-Jan. 15.

250. FLETCHER WOOLLEY, York-st. East, Commercial-rd., Middx., Gent.; for improvements in the manufacture or preparation of materials to be used as a substitute for bees'-wax, parts of which improvements are applicable to other purposes. Nov. 15.-May 15.

251. JOHN YULE, Glasgow, Practical Engineer; for improvements in rotatory engines, or an improved rotatory engine. Nov. 15.-May 15.

252. AUGUSTUS APPLEGATH, Crayford, Kent, Calico Printer; for improvements in printing calico and other fabrics. Nov. 15. -May 15.

253. JOSEPH WHITWORTH, Manchester, Lanc., Engineer; for improvements in machinery for spinning and doubling cottonwool, and other fibrous substances. Nov. 19. May 19.

254. WILLIAM NORRIS, Alston, Cumb., Land Surveyor; for improvements in the manufacture of combs. Nov. 19.-May 19. For. Comm.

255. JOHN GORDON CAMPBELL, Glasgow, Lanark, Merchant, and JOHN GIBSON, of the same place, Throwster; for a new or improved process or manufacture of silk, and silk in combination with certain other fibrous substances. Nov. 19.-May 19.

256. JOHN BUCHANAN, Ramsbottam, Lanc., Millwright; for an improved apparatus for the purpose of dyeing, and performing similar operations. Nov. 22.May 22.

257. THOMAS ROBSON, Park-rd., Dalston, Middx., Operative Chemist; for improvements in firing signal and other lights. Nov. 22.-May 22.

258. GEORGE GUYNNE, Holborn, Gent. ; and JAMES YOUNG, Brewer, Brick-lane, Middx.; for improvements in the manufacture of sugars. Nov. 22.-Jan. 22.

259. ISAAC NAYLOR, Stainsbrough, near Barnsley, York, Gamekeeper; for an alarum gun, or reporter and detector. Nov. 22.-May 22.

260. TIMOTHY HACKWORTH, New Shildon, near Bishop Auckland, Engineer; for improvements in steam-engines. Nov. 22. -May 22.

261. THOMAS ELLIS, Stamford Hill, Midda., Esq., and THOMAS BURR, Shrewsbury, Shropshire; for improvements in the manufacture of sheets and pipes, or tubes, and other articles of lead and other metals. Nov. 24.-May 24.

262. JOSEPH WOOLLAMS, Wells, Som., Gent.; for improved means of obtaining power and motion from known sources. Nov. 24.-May 24.

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