Böttcher's great grammar fails us: its treatment of the substantive is not absolutely exhaustive, and it contains no discussion at all of the numerals, adverbs, etc. The numerals in particular present so many peculiarities of form and usage that König's full discussion (pp. 206-232) is certain to prove most valuable for purposes of reference; the lists (pp. 215-225) of compound numbers actually found in the Old Testament are a specially useful contribution, and will be found of critical as well as philological interest.

In illustration of König's treatment of the noun (pp. 11206), it will be sufficient to refer to his discussion of the large and important class consisting of the three radicals with one originally short vowel the so-called segholates. This occupies the first 70 pages of the volume, less indeed the considerable space occupied by matters common to all nouns, as, e.g., the case-endings (pp. 3-10). The form katl is considered first. The instances are given in three divisions-(a) Those which exhibit in the inflected forms the original ǎ, p. 1 f.; (b) those of which no inflected form occurs; (c) those which in the inflected forms shew the original ǎ thinned down to I, p. 17 f. It is unfortunate that the reason of this most valuable division is left unexplained for several pages, and that between the first two divisions and the last there intervene accounts of caseendings in general and other matters. Instances of kit are also given in three divisions:-(a) Words of which only forms with I occur, and which are therefore to some extent uncertain instances: cf. class (c) under kaṭl; (b) words which occur with both seghol and çere in the first syllable of the simple singular form, and (c) words which shew only çere in the first syllable. Instances of kŭṭl are divided into (a) words which shew Ŏ in the inflected forms, (b) those which shew (always or at times) ŭ in the inflected forms, and (c) those which retain Ŏ in the St. Abs. Pl.. e.g. D. There then follow similarly classified instances of this class of noun from the (first, second, and third) guttural roots and roots ''y, y''y, ND, N'Y, y.", and ". The section closes with the instances in which Hebrew throws the short vowel into the last syllable.

This combination of exhaustive presentation and careful analysis is of unquestionable value, although the particular method of classification may not commend itself as the best. Many will probably still prefer Stade's arrangement, by which all the different types due to the peculiar character of different roots which the same form may present are given in succession under that form (e.g., under katlon, by,, etc.): but this is not the place to criticise in detail either this or any other classification found in the present volume: it is a matter of principle, and the principle was explained and defended in the first volume. But it may be added that, as a

further effect of the principle adopted, the feminines of this type are discussed quite by themselves (pp. 156-170).

In citing the individual instances, the pausal forms actually found, and the plural endings (whether -im or -oth), are indicated. This is of value; but the plan of adding also the meanings of the words is to be deprecated: for advanced students, who alone are likely to use the work, the information will be unnecessary, and by no means worth the numerous brackets it adds to pages otherwise unavoidably crowded with them.

The second main division of the volume, entitled "Die generolle Formenlehre," deals with the various forms of the language in their relation to one another, in their historical development, and as influenced by physiological laws. Some prefatory sections discuss the trustworthiness of the Hebrew textual tradition. On the whole, König estimates this highly, and, as compared with Lagarde, depreciates the importance for a study of noun-formation of the different vocalization frequently represented by the Septuagint (pp. 359 ff). Important sections then follow on the priority of the noun or verb, the origin of the derivative conjugations, and the tense and modal forms, the origin and significance of the various noun-forms, word-composition, and the nature of the inflexional variations in both verb and noun. As to the first of these matters, König argues against the priority of either verb or noun, regarding them rather as two parallel developments, having the same direct relation to the root, but independent of one another.

In many respects the last sections of the volume will be found to be the most characteristic. It is in these that König's "lautphysiologische methode " is most directly and fully seen. All who are even slightly acquainted with any other Semitic language are well aware of the peculiarly great influence of the tone on Hebrew vocalisation. To König's detailed discussion they will, therefore, turn with interest.

Among the more general aspects of this volume is the constant reference to comparative Semitic philology, which fully justifies the new phrase in the full-title. At the same time, the "constant reference to Qimchi and the other authorities," which formed so excellent a feature of the earlier volume, still characterises the second, although the fact is no longer mentioned in the title.

A full index of forms, extending to upwards of 150 columns, and a shorter subject-index, greatly facilitate the use of the work as a book of reference.

It is impossible, in a short review, to criticise, or even refer to, the contents of such a work as this in any detail. But sufficient has probably been said to show that it is marked by two great qualities, with which Professor König's other work has made us familiar

-thoroughness of treatment and independence of judgment: it is to be regretted that to these we cannot add lucidity of expression. Yet, despite the frequent obscurity of the style, this work deserves, and is sure to receive, a hearty welcome from all advanced students of Hebrew in England; and all readers of the two volumes already published will echo the wish that no great time may elapse before the work is completed. G. BUCHANAN GRAY.

Romains et Juifs.

Etude critique sur les Rapports publics et Privés qui ont existé entre les Romains et les Juifs jusqu'a la prise de Jerusalem par Titus. L. K. Amitai. Paris: Fischbacher. Pp. 136.

Essai sur la Formation du Canon de L'Ancient Testament.

Xavier Koenig. Paris: Fischbacher. Pp. 75.

Das Rätsel des Fünfbuches Mose und seine falsche Lösung.

Ein Beitrag zur Lösung einer brennenden biblischen Zeitfrage mit eingehender Berücksichtigung der Qullenscheidung von Dr Strack. Eduard Rupprecht. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann. Edinburgh and London: Williams & Norgate. Svo, pp. 160. Price, M.2.

THE writer of the first of these books, a Belgian Jew, promises his readers a critical study of the relations between the Jews and Romans during the most important period of the world's history. The author knows well what such a study should be. "Critical history," he says, "in order not to lose itself in the hazardous, fanciful sphere of hypothesis, ought before all things carefully to collect materials, facts; then to examine them with scrupulous care in order to eliminate whatever is uncertain, whatever excites suspicion. Every prejudice ought to be set aside with jealous care." These are excellent principles. Yet after reading his book we have regretfully to say that he awakens expectations which he does not by any means satisfy. As soon as he begins to write his history he seems to forget his own principles. We look in vain for evidence of original research, diligent collection of materials, careful study of documents. And we miss still more the calm impartial tone and temper of the true historian. However

willing we may be to be carried along by the author's always vigorous and sometimes eloquent writing, we find ourselves pausing to question every second statement, and asking for proof, which is rarely given.

Even the prelude suffices to show that the Jew is going to be the hero, and the Roman the villain of the drama. Vae, vae vobis"! So it begins. "It is the cry of the heart of the barbarian, of the wolf in the face of the lamb, of a world in which might usurps the place of right and justice." As we read on, we find we are not mistaken. The Roman is the barbarian, the wolf, the usurper. "My work will not be in vain," the author says, “if I do nothing but show the true character of the Romans at the epoch which we are studying." Montesquieu is quoted with approval: "The Romans were a race of brigands, who never belied the character which they had at the beginning." Moses is quoted with the assumption that he had a prevision of the Romans in Deut. xxviii. 49. And the writer gives his own verdict: "The shewolf with her milk nourished their first ancestor, and with the milk infused her blood, her taste for rapine, her thirst for blood, and her appetite for the flesh of her victims." This and much that is like it may make a fine background for a picture, but it is not history.

Now turn to the hero. We are told that the Jew contended with the Roman during those two centuries because he had a noble and sacred cause to maintain. The struggle was a holy war. "It was the rising of a people to rescue themselves from the intolerable yoke of a conquering, cruel, and insatiable barbarian. The cause for which they fought was law and religion. This was why the struggle was so desperate, and why it ceased only with the complete disappearance of the combatants on the side of the heroic people." Again we have to say that this is not history. The struggle of the Maccabees was the last holy war of the Jews. The lofty religious enthusiasm, the genuine spiritual fire which burned in the hearts of Judas and his brethren is looked for in vain among the combatants of later times. Wise and good men kept themselves aloof from the disastrous struggle with the Romans, as our author himself admits (p. 71). Those who prolonged the bitter conflict were doubtless patriots of a kind. They fought heroically, desperately. But they were not men of enlightenment; still less were they saints. They were wild zealots, fanatics, sicarians. It was a kingdom of this world they contended for. It is vain to speak of a sacred cause borne down by tyranny, of right overwhelmed by brutal might. The decline and fall of the Jewish nation, like the later decline and fall of her great enemy, were due, not to external, but to internal, causes.

The writer's repeated assertion that the Jews of that period were

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intellectually as well as morally in advance of the Romans, that "their culture and civilisation were incontestably superior," may be allowed to pass. We leave it an unsolved problem whether the Pharisees, whom he regards as the flower of the nation, were intellectually superior to the men of the Augustan age. But in the course of his story he has more serious questions to consider. He says nothing that is new about Christianity. He seems here content to follow the guidance of Graetz. But he is most anxious to correct a false impression that prevails regarding the Pharisees. They were really peaceful men, simple in their manners, severe in their devotion to duty, declared enemies of luxury, and full of sweetness towards the poor and unfortunate." He regards it as very doubtful if there ever was any conflict between these good men and Jesus. Even if there was, there could be no greater calumny than to say that the Jews were the instigators of the death of Jesus. "There is superabundant evidence of the inanity of the accusation: it wants all psychological and historical basis. The responsibility of the death of the Christ falls entirely on Pontius Pilate-that is to say, on the Romans." We want more than psychology to prove statements like these, but as usual we look in vain for the historical evidence.

The volume closes with an impressive appeal to Christendom. "Will Christianity always show herself hostile to Judaism? Will the daughter continue to be jealous of the mother? Will she tyrannise over her for ever? Will the time never come when a sincere reconciliation shall take place? The mother extends her arms; will the daughter still refuse to throw herself into them?" He prophesies that the time will come when we shall all be governed by one Ideal, the eternally Beautiful, the eternally Good. "Then the Messiah expected of Israel shall have come at last." By a singular oversight he omits from his Ideal what ought to come first, the eternally True. We doubt whether this volume brings us much nearer to that.

M. Xavier Koenig, who appears to be a member of the French Protestant Church, tells us that he has set himself the task of giving to the students of France what Ryle, Buhl, and Wildeboer have recently given to those of England, Germany, and Holland— a history of the Canon based upon the definite results of critical science. Among earlier workers in this field he singles out for special praise Vatke, Kuenen, Wellhausen, and R. Smith. evidently imbibed the spirit of these masters. valour and the discretion of the true critic. "has the right to determine scientifically the organic evolution of the sacred books." But "facts are so difficult to know and inter

He has both the "History," he says,