the Central Idea is plainly defined, so that the least attentive reader cannot help understanding what his author meant. In other words, the artist labels his picture. It is quite complete without the label, which is added merely to assist the intelligence of the public. 'Monuments of another age'-that is the Central Idea. The few decaying and exhausted people who still linger in those musty shades, are relics of an elder day, survivals of another generation; it is under that aspect, and that aspect alone, that they are presented.

The Subject is virtually Concrete; having to do with matters of observation and experience. It is for you to make the observation and to gain the experienceeither from the actual building; or from the recollection of it. The point of view, is the master point of view of Human Interest. The Central Idea, any kind of human interest that takes your fancy in this connection. The questions you must ask yourself are :—

Which, among the Impressions I receive, is the impression to choose for my Central Idea? What things are they which give me that impression, and which I am to describe (excluding all others) in order to present my Central Idea? To what reflections, contributing to the illustration of the Central Idea, do they give rise? What quotations are there which will help to illustrate it?

The answers to these questions, duly disposed in the Introduction, Argument and Conclusion, will make your essay.

XI

OF GARDENS

WHAT is a garden? To define it, is not so easy as it would seem. It is a piece of ground cultivated and made beautiful by man for his pleasure. That is a working definition; but, have you yet arrived at the Idea of a garden? Until you have, you will not be able to deal adequately with the Subject. Analyse the definition. If you take a piece of ground in order to cultivate and make it beautiful, what does that action imply with regard to the piece of ground? That the ground was originally uncultivated and, if not ugly at least, not sufficiently beautiful. In other words, it was a piece of Nature. It is then, a piece of Nature which you take in order to cultivate and to make beautiful-that is, you cultivate it in order to make it beautiful. What does that statement amount to, in other words? That man, being discontented with Nature as she is, takes upon himself to improve her. There seems a fallacy here. What question immediately arises? How is it possible to improve upon Nature? And yet, the garden is undoubtedly more beautiful than the original piece of ground. Where, then, is the fallacy? you probably feel sure that it exists somewhere. Let us examine our definition more closely.

Man, we said, is discontented with Nature? But, if he be, where did he learn his discontent? For discontent implies the knowledge of the existence of something better; and man knows nothing that is better than Nature, because Nature is all he knows. You say, perhaps, that he learnt it from within himself; and, while that proposition may be true in a sense, it does not carry you much farther, because man is himself part of Nature. We are shut up, then, to this conclusion; that man learnt his discontent with Nature and his consequent desire to improve her, from Nature herself. Why not? If you put the matter with a little more precision, and say, Man learnt his discontent with certain aspects of Nature, and his consequent ambition to improve them, from certain other aspects of Nature; you will I think find no objection to the statement. And what is this improvement of Nature called? The word improvement probably strikes you as inaccurate. What then, do we call those (we will say) modifications of Nature which we bring to pass when we make a garden, or build a house, or paint a picture, or write a poem ?—it is all one. They are called Art. And what is Art? That is a large question; but it will suffice for our present purpose to take the definition of Aristotle, and to reply that Art is the Imitation of Nature. That sounds-does it not?—more reasonable. But how does that definition fit in with our conclusion, that art is an improvement upon Nature? To answer that question and so complete the argument, we must ascertain exactly what Aristotle meant by the word Imitation. Art imitates Nature ... Fine art . . . discovers the "form" towards which an object tends, the result which Nature strives to attain, but rarely or never can attain. . . . It passes beyond the bare reality given by Nature, and expresses a purified form of reality disengaged from accident, and freed from

I

ambitions which thwart its development . . . unfolding itself according to the law of its own being, apart from alien influences and the disturbances of chance.'1

According to this theory-and none better was ever framed the same law of aspiration and growth towards perfection is inherent-is implanted-both in Nature and in man; and some aspects and qualities of Nature and man touch perfection at times, showing what the whole may become. It is thus man's peculiar office to do, as it were, for Nature what she cannot always do for herself: that is, to take up the work where she leaves it, and to bring it to perfection. Here is no contradiction, because man is part of Nature; he is not outside her; you may say with truth, that he is a certain part of Nature's machinery which is designed to develop towards perfection certain other parts.

We have travelled a long way to arrive at a definition of the Idea of a Garden. Now, what is it? A piece of natural ground, presenting a certain undeveloped aspect of Nature, which is perfected and made beautiful by man in accordance with the beauty and perfection (or hints of perfection) which he perceives in certain other rare and finely developed aspects of Nature.

And now, what is the Subject? Both Abstract and Concrete. As regards the principle that governs the making of gardens, Abstract: as regards the gardens. you know, or which you may invent, Concrete.

Having arrived at our principle, we must proceed to explain in what manner it should be acted upon. What is the first thing to do, in order to make a beautiful garden-or indeed anything else? To go to Nature to discover those rare and finely developed aspects which you are to imitate-that is, to produce by development. Gardening is a most ancient art; and experience has 'Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art. Butcher.

taught us by this time, what to look for. Certain aspects of Nature there are, of course, which will not serve us here the formidable beauty of great mountains-the magic of wide waste spaces-the mystery of deep forests, and many more. But, the charm of rounded hills descending gently in green declivities, clear brooks and standing pools, thick foliage and massed blossom, serried avenue and defending hedge, grassy plain and moss-clad boulder, and even a wild profusion: the charm of these is for us to capture and to perfect. For, a garden is designed wholly for the sake of pleasure. Why is it capable of affording a high degree of pleasure? Because the contemplation of the beautiful is the highest pleasure known to man.

The next step in the process is, obviously, to show how in practice these various elements may be harmoniously combined; to give plans, and designs, and detailed descriptions. But, adequately to do this, you would have to acquaint yourself with the famous gardens of the world, and with a considerable literature on the subject. This, however, under the circumstances, is clearly impracticable. You may, however, study Bacon's description of an ideal garden, which is the ideal Renaissance Garden in England; and this will supply you with instances of the working of the principles which we have laid down. It will, moreover, give you a definite standard of taste by which to judge those gardens-old or new— which you know; and will give you a basis to start from, if you essay to take the line of describing a garden designed by yourself.

Notes: A garden is a piece of ground cultivated in order to be made beautiful for man's pleasure. In other words, it is a work of art. And art is imitation of Nature; that is, the perfecting of certain aspects of Nature, in the light of certain other aspects, by developing them according to the laws of their own being. This is