monuments which attest the taste of the men of olden time with Bishop Strachan at their head. St. Hilda's, Annesley Hall and Queen's Hai! for the women students of Trinity, Victoria and University College, are the first promise of the supply of another most important need of our university life.

Before giving a final summary of our forces for university work a word is necessary as to the contribution made by the colleges to the strength of the university staff. Each college has its own faculty, the arts colleges covering the full work assigned to University College by the Federation Act. But this does not imply a duplication of all college work. By a system of inter-collegiate exchange, the varied talents and special scholarship of the different members of the staff are made to add strengh to the entire university. The honour work is divided into special sections, and one of these is assigned to each professor of the united college faculties, who lectures on this subject to the students. of all the colleges. Thus the present united faculties in classics give the advantage of the work of twelve men, in English six, in French and German, each six, and in Orientals five, and in moral philosophy, three. Every college which brings even one man of eminence in his department is thus a source of added strength to the university, while by reason of the competition of the colleges, no college can afford to keep weak men on its staff. In this way the whole student body is learning to appreciate the strong men who may be outside of their particular college, and to claim the strongest men not as belonging to one particular college, but as ornaments of the whole university. The present staff of the university and colleges apart from general officers presented by departments is as follows:

These with laboratory and lecture assistants give a total staff in arts of about one hundred.

Section I., 1905. 7

Around this centre of general education and culture are gathered the professional faculties and schools. The professional faculties are two in number; medicine and applied science and engineering.

The professional schools federated or affiliated with the university are thirteen-viz., five in theology, two in music, one each in law, pedagogy, agriculture, dentistry, pharmacy and veterinary surgery. The way is also being prepared for the admission of other branches of applied science such as household science, forestry and commerce, either as affiliated schools or as departmental courses in the university.

Finally in this common work federation has made the state, the Christian churches, and private enterprise and liberality all mutually helpful to each other on sound principles of mutual independence. Public funds have very largely provided for the Central University, University College and the School of Practical Science at an outlay of over $4,000,000 on capital account and an annual expenditure of about $180,000.

Professional enterprise maintains the faculty of medicine at an annual cost of $64,000. The agricultural and normal colleges are maintained by the state at an annual expenditure of nearly $100,000. The other affiliated professional schools are all the result of private or professional enterprise and have involved a capital outlay of about $300,000. The other colleges and theological schools are the creation of the churches and represent in capital over $3,000,000 and an annual diture of over $100,000.

expen

The University of Toronto on the federation principle represents to the people of Ontario a combined capital of over $7,000,000, and an annual expenditure of nearly $500,000 for the higher education of over 3,000 students drawn from all parts of the country and Dominion, and even from China, Japan, India and Africa, and from Newfoundland and the West Indies.

The value of the work which is thus being done for the country needs only to be known to receive its proper appreciation. The complexity of our modern civilization requires that every nation claiming a place in the front rank of a modern progress shall be furnished with a sufficient supply of skilled men in all the special departments of human industry, and that in each case skill shall be based not only on experience but also on scientific knowledge. We need to-day not only a high average of intelligence among the whole people; but also the highest special perfection in the several arts and sciences. The lack of this will surely condemn us to inferiority and ultimate defeat in the race of international competition. The university becomes from this point of view the very vital centre of the life of the state and no price can be too great to pay for its highest perfection.

IV.- Origin of the French Canadians.

BY B. SULTE.

(Read May 24, 1905).

On seeing this title many persons may express the opinion jocularly that the origin of the French-Canadian people was France, but we shall see presently that there are other things to be considered in this connection.

What part of France did they come from?

Under what influence?

In what manner did they come?

How long did the period of emigration last?

From whence did they receive their present characteristics?

How did they acquire their present form of language?

Why are not some of the different "patois" spoken in France heard here?

And what about the half-breeds?

We intend to explain the formation of a certain number of French people into settlers on the St. Lawrence during the 17th Century and from which has sprung the whole of the present French Canadian population. Nothing will be said of the tradesmen, the functionaries and the clergy who composed the "French" or floating element of the colony until it disappeared at the conquest.

I. Acadia was peopled by a company of traders between 1636 and 1670 or thereabouts. No one has yet satisfactorily demonstrated where the French of that colony came from, though their dialect would indicate their place of origin to be in the neighbourhood of the Bay of Biscay or the mouth of River Loire. They are distinct from the French Canadians in some particulars and not allied with the settlers of the St. Lawrence. As a matter of fact the two French colonies in question have lived apart from one another as "Acadians" and "Canadians," for more than two centuries and a half now.

Inter-marriages between Acadians and Canadians only commenced after 1755, when some Acadians took refuge in Canada.

Brittany never traded with Canada, except that, from 1535 to 1600, some of the St. Malo navigators used to visit the lower St. Lawrence and barter with the Indians, but there were no European settlers in the whole of that pretended new France. Afterwards the regime of the fur companies, which extended from 1608 to 1632, was adverse to colo

nization and we know by Champlain's writings that no resident, no "habitant," tilled the soil during that quarter of a century. The men who were employed at Quebec and elsewhere by the companies all belonged to Normandy and, after 1632, twelve or fifteen of them married the daughters of the other Normans recently arrived to settle for good. Brittany remaind in the background after, as well as before, 1632. This is confirmed by an examination of the parish registers where about thirty Bretons only can be found during the last period of the 17th Century.

The men of Cartier and Roberval (1535-44) were all Bretons and unaccustomed to residence elsewhere than at home in Brittany. The result was that most of them perished from the effect of cold, bad nourishment, disease, and despair, whilst the present French Canadian would not experience any hardship were he to find himself in the same situation.

When Champlain (1604-30) describes the miseries of life in Acadia. and the lower St. Lawrence, he merely states for our information that his men and himself had acquired very little knowledge in that sense above that of previous explorers. They still persisted in depending upon the provisions brought from France-salt pork, beans, flour, mostly affected by the influence of weather, time, etc., and not always abundant enough to cover the period at the end of which a fresh supply would be sent. It was considered good fortune when one or two of the men could handle a gun and shoot some game. As for the art of fishing, nobody seems to have known anything of it, and these people starved in a world of plenty, since they had the rivers, and lakes, and the forests lying all around their miserable camps.

The only superiority of the Champlain men over the crew of Cartier consisted in the building of a house or two, but even at this they showed a rather poor conception of comfort. Chauvin, in 1599, went to Tadousac and left there sixteen of his followers to winter, without the elementary precautions of providing them with eatables and warm quarters. In the spring of 1600 the place was found empty, and none of the men are mentioned afterwards. The Indians had always been friendly to them, but could not take such inexperienced folks to the woods. The same thing happened to De Monts (1604-5) in Acadia, when nearly all his party died of scorbutic disease and want of food during the rough season. Champlain, who knew these facts recorded from the years of Cartier, did not succeed any better in 1608, when he lost twenty men out of twenty-eight. This was repeated yearly afterwards, but in smaller proportions.

Even as late as 1627 the "winter residents" of Quebec were ignorant of the advantage of cutting trees during the summer in order to prepare dry fuel for the October-April season. It was Pontgravé who advised them to do so, and no doubt they recognized it as a great forethought They used to pick up whatever the wind would blow down of branches in the forest, and if that material proved insufficient on extremely cold days, then they tried their hands at felling some trees near by and supplying them in blocks to the steward's room. No wonder that the writings of the period in question so often complained of the evil of smoke and the small quantity of heat produced by the burning of such green wood. Stoves being unknown to the hivernants in Canada, a caboose supplied the place of that indispensable adjustment, and the men, unoccupied most of the time, slept around it, starved there, got sick and died on the spot, one after another, as a matter of course. Father Biard, evidently ahead of his generation, once made the remark that an iron box (a stove) such as used in Germany was preferable by far to the poisonous system of the caboose. The improvement made by Champlain in his house at Quebec consisted in substituting an ordinary chimney for the open fireplace above alluded to. It is likely that Louis Hebert in 1617, and Guillaume Couillard about 1620, built similar smoke-escapes in their homes; they also had the good sense to fit door and window sashes so as both to close hermetically and open easily when required. These marvels were not to be surpassed for a long while after that.

The equipment provided for the men of Cartier, Roberval, Chauvin, De Monts, and Champlain was not generally suitable in Canada. Slouch felt hats are not equal to fur caps in winter; boots and shoes of European fabrics could not compete with the moccasins; and as for overcoats, it may be said they were not fit for the climate. Gloves, trousers, and underclothes adapted to the exigencies of 30° below zero constituted a puzzle for these people. Snowshoes and mitts were doubtless adopted at an early date from the Indians.

It was currently believed throughout France that Canada was a cold purgatory for civilized people, and would never be settled by Christians.

Building houses was not customary in Quebec until 1632, because the men (all without families) were located for the winter in what was called the fort. As it was not intended to increase the colony, no carpenter was needed for other purposes than to keep the ships in repair.

This awkward situation remained the same during twenty-six years. What was the cause of it? Simply this: the men for Canada were recruited from the working classes (if not of the worst), in the suburbs